ABUSE: (Latin abuti 'to waste'). 1. the intentional or unintentional misuse of substances, drugs, equipment, programs and so forth 2. to physically or verbally attack or maltreat another; for example, an abused person is an individual who has been harmed by another person or situation. (See CHILD ABUSE; DRUG ABUSE; ELDER ABUSE). (IP)
ABUSE OF THE ELDERLY : See ELDER ABUSE.

ACCELERATING PACE OF CHANGE: Technological innovation, computing power, information in scientific journals, global population, environmental change and many other aspects of modern life are undergoing rapid if not exponential increases. This rate of scientific and technological change is increasing human opportunity but also social and environmental risk. We have become used to this acceleration of history, as surprising technological advances become commonplace news items. However, many of these changes are driven by corporate motivations and are often already developed before their full ethical consequences can be properly debated. Each technological advance is progressive from the previous technologies, so there is a certain "spike" in the future beyond which prediction may be impossible.   (See TECHNOLOGY, MOORE’S LAW, FUTUROLOGY, CHANGE) (MP)
ACCEPTANCE : See PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE.

ACCIDENT :  Accidents are usually thought of as any events which were not in tended. Some accidents, like auto accidents, are bad.  Others, like accidentally finding a treasure trove of gold, are good accidents. Another kind of accident would be an event which  unpredictable. By "unpredictable" is not meant "hard to predict", or " i mpossible to forsee given current knowledge or methods".  What is meant is an event which even God, or someone with perfect knowledge of all  preconditions and scientific laws, would not have been able to  predict. Some people think that events of the kin d which are studied in mathematical theories of chaos are accidental in this sense.  But they are not, because chaotic systems are perfectly  deterministic and predictable by means of mathematical functions.  These functions are "non-linear", however. Whet h er or not an event is "accidental" is probably only a  function of our ignorance. If we know the causes of an event, we say that it was determined.  If we are ignorant of the causes, we call it "accidental".(FL)

ACCOUNTABLE: Emphasized liability for something of value either contractually or because of one’s position of responsibility (see ACCOUNTABILITY, RESPONSIBLE) (IP)
ACCOUNTABILITY : Responsibility for explaining or justifying one's conduct to the public or to one's superiors. Social responsibility includes the obligations of an individual or institution to society. (see RESPONSIBLE) (DM)
ACCURACY: 1. correctness; 2. the extent to which a measurement is close to the actual value of a quantity being measured. Accuracy is the correctness of a measurement compared to the actually existing value or standard. In mathematics the accuracy of a number is expressed by its number of decimal places or of significant digits (e.g. 3.14 is accurate to 3 significant digits). (See PRECISION) (MP+RW)

ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh) : a major and widely distributed peripheral and brain neurotransmitter. ACh, first synthesized in 1867, is a cholinergic neurotransmitter with the primary function mediating synaptic activity of the nervous system and skeletal muscles. ACh is rapidly degraded by acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which prevents accumulation of the neurotransmitter. Naturally occurring ACh agonists include pilocarpine, muscarine (mushrooms) and arecoline (betel nuts). Symptoms of intoxication include salivation, nausea, vomiting, headache, visual disturbances, diarrhea, decreased heart rate and blood pressure, shock and possibly death. The best known antagonist is atropine but there is also scopolamine and related belladonna alkaloids, which are found in plants such as deadly nightshade. The ACh antagonists cause dryness of the mouth, increased heart rate, dilated pupils, difficulty swallowing, atazia, restlessness, hallucinations and coma. A number of insecticides and nerve gases block AChE which results in elevated levels of ACh that can be fatal; hence the use of atropine to contract these effects. (See Brain Neurotransmitters; TOXICOLOGY; DOPAMINE; POISON HEMLOCK ). (SG2)

ACF: Australian Conservation Foundation.
ACGT: UK Advisory Committee on Genetic Testing, United Kingdom. It terms of reference are (1) to provide advice to Ministers on developments in testing for genetic disorders; (2) to advise on testing individuals for genetic disorders taking account of ethical, social and scientific aspects; and (3) to establish requirements, especially in respect of efficacy and product information, to be met by manufacturers and suppliers of genetic tests. (JA)
ACHIEVEMENT: The successful completion of tasks, plans and responsibilities, or other accomplishments whether from inspiration, heroism or hard work. Achievements may be assigned by the self or motivated by a teacher, and the goals realized may be personal or professional. The achievements of people are commonly compared by society using age-related tests in school, and experience-related tests in the workplace. (MP)
ACID : 1. A compound that yields hydrogen ions (H ⁺ ) when dissociated in solution, reacts with bases to form salts and tastes sour due to its low pH value 2. Street slang for the hallucinogenic mood-altering drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), for example, " to drop acid" meaning to take LSD. (See ACID SOILS, LSD). (IP+MP)

ACNFP : Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes of GM Food.

ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME : see AIDS.

ACT : Advanced Cell Technology is a biotechnology organization and is located in Massachusetts in USA. (JA).

ACT CONSEQUENTIALISM: See UTILITARIANISM.
ACT OF GOD : See ACT OF NATURE.
ACT OF NATURE : a misadventure or casualty which is said to be caused by an 'Act of God'; that is, occasioned exclusively by forces of nature without the intervention of any human agency. An act of nature may be any accident produced by any physical force such as lighting strikes, tempests, perils of the seas, tornados, earthquakes etc. (See ACT OF PROVIDENCE). (IP)
ACT OF PARLIAMENT : a statute or law made by the sovereign with the advice and consent of those assembled in parliament. Acts of parliament form the written laws of the nation and are of three kinds: public, local or special, private or personal. The validity of a statute cannot be questioned in court. (IP)
ACT OF PROVIDENCE : an uncontrollable accident against which ordinary experience or foresight could not guard. (See ACT OF NATURE). (IP)
ACT UTILITARIANISM: See UTILITARIANISM.
ACTIVE EUGENICS See EUGENICS.
ACTIVE EUTHANASIA: See EUTHANASIA.

ACTIVISM: Self-initiated action and activity towards an ideological, political or environmental cause. Democratic countries encourage freedom of expression, and ‘protest’ may include petitions, public marches, civil disobedience and media attention. ‘Direct action’ is action outside the normal procedural system. There is opportunity for official activism from within charities, non-profit and non-government organizations. Workers’ activism may include mass refusals to work - the strike or industrial action. Creatively attracting the media to an issue is one method used by social and environmenten change destructive practices once exposed to the camera spotlight. Appropriating the power of media to a cause has been called ‘culture jamming’. The internet has created a forum for uncontrolled discussion and organization of activism, as well as the online vandalism of ‘hacktivism’. Sometimet activism undermines the cause and is sometimes branded ‘ecoterrorism’. Quite the RESISTANCE,NATIVE PARADIGM) (MP)

ACTIVITY ANOREXIA: See ANOREXIA ATHLETICA.
ACUPUNCTURE: A Chinese traditional system of healing. This system treats various ailments by means of inserting small needles into the skin briefly at specific locations. These locations are known as "acupuncture points", and groups of these points are classed together in "meridians", of which there are twelve major ones. The system of acupuncture is popular in East Asia, and in recent decades has gained prominence in the West as well, as a method of controlling pain. The theory behind acupuncture is quite complex, involving the interaction of different organs with the Five Elements (see FIVE ELEMENTS) and with Yin and Yang (see YIN AND YANG). The central texts on acupuncture are written in classical Chinese, although some texts have been translated. (AG)

ADA : American Disability Act of 1990 which prohibits discrimination in the workplace against a handicapped person who is otherwise qualified. The act came into effect from 1992. (JA).

ADA DEFICIENCY : Adenosime deaminase deficiency is a rare genetic disease that is caused by lack of functional adenosine deaminase enzyme, that causes an immunodeficiency disease. In 1990 it was the target disease of the first attempts at human gene therapy, and has been one of the few genetic diseases claimed to be cured by gene therapy (2001). (See HUMAN GENE THERAPY) (DM)
ADAM AND EVE : See GENESIS and ORIGINAL SIN.
ADAPT: (Latin: adaptâre ‘to fit to’) The adjustment of behaviour, form or function as a result of changes in the surrounding environment or circumstances. For something to adapt, it must change or modify to suit a different purpose. Biology adapts during evolution, technology adapts to modernity, but most importantly for ethics, belief systems and human behaviours must adapt to suit an increasingly crowded and limited Earth. (See ADAPTATION, ADAPTIVE THINKING, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT, HUMAN EXTINCTION). (MP)
ADAPTABILITY : The ability to adjust with changes in circumstances is an important attribute for effective learning, personality development, planning, management, marketing, development and technological implementation. (See ADAPTIVE THINKING) (MP)
ADAPTATION : 1. in evolutionary biology a particular structure, physiological process or behavior that provides an organism with an advantage to better survive and reproduce; 2. the evolutionary process which leads to the development or modification of an existing structure or function in response to a changed environment; 3. the physiological response of sensory receptor organs (vision, touch, temperature, olfaction, audition and pain) to stimuli from the continually changing environment; 4. the conscious or unconscious modification of an individual adjusting to changing social and cultural surroundings. (IP)
ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT: Adaptive management is handling, direction and control, which is responsive to changing circumstances. Ecological, sociopolitical and corporate management strategies are most effective when easily adapted and modified to accommodate changed environments, superior information or new motivations. This is a continuous dynamic process involving environmental and economic monitoring and assessment. Elements associated with adaptive management include: the collection and incorporation of new information, evidence-based management, adaptive modification of plans and strategies, the precautionary principle, strategic environmental assessment, environmental impact assessment, mitigation and contingency planning, taking opportunities rather than waiting for them, learning from the mistakes of others as well as your own, openness to innovation and responsiveness to critical input into the process. (See ADAPT, ADAPTIVE THINKING, STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT, PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE) (MP)
ADAPTIVE RADIATION : The evolutionary divergence of a lineage of organisms into different phenotypes. (See RADIATION, EVOLUTION, NATURAL SELECTION) (MP)
ADAPTIVE THINKING: The ability to change one’s mind on the basis of newcertainty, is able to say 'I don't know', and is willing to revise beliefs and opinions. (See ADAPT, ADAPTATION, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT) (MP)
ADD: See ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
ADDICTION: (Latin: addicere ‘to devote’) Compulsive, uncontrollable dependence on a substance, habit or practice to such a degree that cessation causes severe emotional and/or physical responses; however, the term is most often used in the context of drug addiction. Because drug addiction is a difficult concept to define, a WHO expert committee in 1970 substituted the words "drug dependence" which is characterized by psychological symptoms such as craving and a compulsion to take the drug on a continuous or periodic basis, with serious emotional and physical side-effects developing when the drug is withheld. The drugs of major concern (all causing physical and/or psychological symptoms of dependence) are alcohol, nicotine, the opiates, the sedatives particularly barbiturates, stimulants such as cocaine and the amphetamines, the hallucinogens like mescaline and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and cannabis also known as marijuana, pot, dope or hashish. Although government concern centers primarily on illegal drug abuse such as heroin, the adverse effects of these is relatively small in comparison with the very large number of people dependent on alcohol and tobacco. Furthermore, few addicts confine their intake to a single substance, and synergistic interactions are often many times more hazardous than the additive effects would indicate. Dopamine is the messenger of the brain’s reward systems and has been dubbed the courier of addiction because many paths of pleasure in the brain employ dopamine messengers in their reinforcement. Mine in the brain and stimulate this reward system. For example, the "buzz" described by those taking amphetamines (better known as speed), or the "rush" of snf the sudden increase of brain dopamine activity that these drugs stimulate. Consequently, it is not entirely by accident that the ingenious human species hasts - often with pain and illness to themselves and their offspring as a result - of the natural intoxicants like alcohol, tobacco, opium and cocaine. Thereforponsibility and intelligent realism when it comes to caring for oneself, and if that fails judicious pharmacological intervention plus a program of self-educaand prevention (Latin addicere to devote) (see FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME; DRUG TOLERANCE; INDIVIDUAL DRUG ENTRIES; INTERNET ADDICTION; GAMBLING ADDICTION). (IP)
ADENINE : Commonly abbreviated as A, one of four nitrogen containing bases in nucleotides, a component of DNA and RNA. (JA)
ADENOSINE DEAMINASE DEFICIENCY: See ADA DEFICIENCY.
ADHD: See ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
ADOLESCENCE: the period between childhood and adulthood when, typically, dependence and immaturity are replaced by independence and maturity. In the USA it is the age designation for humans 13-18 years old. Adolescence is a time of emotional fluctuation and vulnerability due to the biological effects of rising sex hormone secretion and heightened libido. It may be a time of identity crisis, changing body image, experimentation with sex roles and sexuality (see PUBERTY). (IP, DM)
ADOPTION : The bringing of someone into a relationship that (s)he did not previously enjoy. Normally used to refer to the taking into a family of a baby or young person. Such adoptees generally have the legal privileges of natural daughters and sons. Refers to the integration of a child, born to another couple, into a family who decides to take care, educate and give love to this child. Law rules strictly the qualifications needed for adoption; usually, it is requested that the couple be composed by father and mother, but in some occasions, a single mother or father is also allowed to adopt. Third world countries bestow an elevated number of children for adoption to couples from wealthy countries. Usually, children for adoption have been previously abandoned or given to special institutions for this purpose. In most cases, these children are born to single women, whose economical situation does not allow them to raise a child, or are the outcome of rape. Unmarried pregnant young women in particular families are also sometimes forced by these to give their baby away for adoption. Since abortion is prohibited in most of these countries, they all have in the majority of cases no other way to solve the problem. Many hundreds of children around the world are adopted per year, but still many more remain in institutions awaiting for someone to give them a better life. In some countries, like Japan, adoption of older persons occurs. (MR+GK)
ADRENAL GLANDS : Paired organs situated on top of each kidney. Each adrenal gland is in fact two separate glands: a) the adrenal cortex (the outer portion) which synthesizes three principal classes of hormones - the glucocorticoids such as cortisol (implicated in stress physiology), the mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone (implicated in ionic balance of body fluids) and smaller amounts of sex hormones such as androgens and estrogens and b) the adrenal medulla (the inner portion) which consists of sympathetic neurons that secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline facilitating the alarm reaction of the General Adaptation Syndrome. (See ADRENALINE; GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME; HOMEOSTASIS). (IP)
ADRENALINE : (Latin ad 'at' + ren 'kidney') Also known as epinephrine, is the 'fight-or-flight' hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla and affecting circulation, muscular action and general arousal. It also acts as a catecholamine neurotransmitter and provides the reaction sought after by the so called "adrenaline junkies". (See ADRENALINE JUNKIES; GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME; ADRENAL GLANDS). (IP+MP)
ADRENALINE JUNKIE: A person who habitually engages in risk-taking behavior such as extreme sports, due to a more than usual enjoyment in the associated releases of adrenaline or related hormones and neurotransmitters. (See ADRENALINE, JUNKIE) (MP)
ADULTS : Important for definition in relation to consent. Varies between countries. In the USA it is the age designation for humans 19-64 years old, with those 65 years and older being referred to as the aged. For bioethics purposes those persons 18 years and older are given legal competence in most countries. (See CONSENT). (DM).
ADULTERY: voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and any other than the lawful spouse. In many countries adultery has been the principal ground for divorce and in earlier periods was even punishable by death, but despite legal and cultural prohibitions adultery has persisted throughout history. Various published surveys originating in the west have indicate that at least 50% of married men and women admit to having sexual intercourse after marriage with a person other than their spouse. From the biological perspective, the practice may represent a subconscious desire to outbreed and gain fitness by increased genetic diversity. (See SPERM COMPETITION, MARRIAGE, OPEN MARRIAGE, SWINGING, MISTRESS, CONCUBINE, COURTESAN, CUCKOLD, DIVORCE). (IP)
ADVANCE DIRECTIVES : Declarations by patients, made in advance of a situation in which they may be incompetent or unable to decide about their own care, stating their treatment preferences or authorizing a third party to make decisions for them. These include various documents including Durable power of attorney, Living wills, Psychiatric wills, Donor cards. (See also LIVING WILL, RIGHT TO DIE, EUTHANASIA). (DM+IP)

ADVERSARIAL SYSTEM: A system or process which relies on two or more opposing sides to resolve conflict and make decisions. Adversarial government systems and legal process may engender conflict, bickering and ‘zero-sum’ bitternl iterations and destructive criticism of theories are the backbone of progress in science. (See COLLABORATION, TEAMWORK, CONFLICT RESOLUTION, GAME THEORY) (MP)
ADVERSE EFFECT : a clinical or perceived undesired effect of a chemical or physical agent. (SG2)

ADVISORY COMMITTEES : Committees or commissions set up to advise governmental bodies or other institutions on public policy . (See also ETHICS COMMITTEES , REVIEW COMMITTEES). (DM)
ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON GENETIC TESTING : See ACGT (UK).
AEROBE: (Greek: aer 'air') Any microorganism that lives and grows on free oxygen (Greek: aer air + bios life). (See ANAEROBE). (IP)
AEROBIC: Pertaining to the presence of air or oxygen, or requiring oxygen for the maintenance of life (Greek aer air) (see AEROBIC EXERCISE, ANAEROBIC). (IP)
AEROBIC EXERCISE : any physical exercise which requires additional effort by the heart and lungs to meet the increased respiratory demand for oxygen. The activity is beneficial for all body components and it is significant to note that physical activity need not consist of an organized exercise program because simple pleasures, such as bush walking, gardening and other homely physical activities, also burn off excess calories which, if unused, turn to fat. Regular gentle aerobic exercise is important in pregnancy, however, since pregnancy requires a high degree of reflex coordination high impact sports needing a good sense of balance; such as water and snow skiing, diving, ice skating and riding, should be avoided. (See ANAEROBIC EXERCISE). (IP)
AEROBICS : See AEROBIC EXERCISE.
AEROSOLS: are small particulates both natural and synthetic which are potentially of great importance climatically. The general trend suggests that they are increasing over the globe, particularly over industrial regions of the Northern Hemisphere where they reduce solar radiation reaching the surface of the Earth. The colloquial epithet "aerosol abuse" has been used to highlight harm caused from industrial aerosols by the environmentally irresponsible (see NUCLEAR WINTER). (IP)
AESTHETICS : The appreciation of beauty and appearance. (DM)

AFFECT: A transitive verb meaning to influence (act on, move, impress) to produce change in something (e.g. in a system, disease, person). To affect is to produce an effect. (See CAUSATION, EFFECT) (MP)
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION: The positive treatment of minority groups. Some say that positive discrimination is still discrimination, but affirmative action helps rebuild bridges of opportunity, and is a form of acknowledgement for past wrongs and the legacies of slavery, Colonialism and the dispossession of indigenous people. Examples of affirmative action include the Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women) Act (Australia), Indigenous land management, educational privileges, healthcare assistance and social welfare assistance. (See MINORITY GROUPS, ACTIVISM) (MP)

AFLOTOXINS: Fungal toxins, Aspergillus flavus , of peanut, corn toxins have carcinogenic substances. (JA)
AFRO-AMERICAN : This term is used to designate the African descendants born in the United States of America. It has replaced the terms of "colored" or "black", which had a racist connotation. The word also vindicates the cultural relationship of these American descendants with the African cultures. Afro-American is also used in a broad sense to designate the Afro-descendants of all America, North, Central and South. (GK)
AFRO-COLOMBIAN, AFRO-BRAZILIAN : In those countries of South America, where a considerable part of the population descend from African immigrants, these people recognize themselves as Afro-Colombians of Afro-Brazilians. Many cultural traits have survived admixture and imposition of the dominant European culture. This is particularly true in music, dance, funerary rituals, marriage, extended families, etc. In Colombia, some of these groups have even maintained a Bantu related language, a pidgin language called "palenquero". (GK)
AGAPE: In the Greek language, three verbs can be used for the English word love, namely eros, phileo and agapao. These there verbs mean sensual love, brotherly love and self-giving love respectively. Agape love indicates the supreme and a nobler form of love, as seen in the sacrificial death of the Lord Jesus Christ on the cross for all human sin. Both Jews and Gentiles have a practice of fellowship and brotherhood means. The name agape can also indicate such fellowship meal. (JA)
AGE : Age factors are used when age is discussed as in relation to a subject or problem example, age of consent, or age related quality of life.

AGE DISTRIBUTION: The demography of the comparative ages of individuals in a population, commonly graphed as a ‘population pyramid’. In developed countries with fewer children there is occurring a ‘graying’ of the population, whereas many less developed countries have the reverse, a ‘youth bulge’. Age distrT, LIFE CYCLE) (MP)
AGE OF CONSENT: The age at which consenting sexual intercourse becomes legal, commonly at 16 years. More broadly, also the ages at which other rights of adults are conferred onto kids, such as driving, drinking alcohol and voting. (See ADULTS, CONSENT) (MP)
AGE/SEX PYRAMID: The Age/Sex Pyramid is a frequency distribution histogram displaying population composition according to age group (vertical scale) and gender (left/right), useful for illustrating age-specific birth, death, disease, fertility rates etc. (See AGE DISTRIBUTION) (MP)

AGED : In the USA this is the age designation for humans 65 years or older. Many persons in modern society live into advanced age, so the definition of 65 years or older may not be ethically relevant. Homes for the aged, pension schemes, senile dementia, and ageism (age-related discrimination in access to health care or other social services) are important issues. (See QUALITY OF LIFE). (DM)
AGENDA 21: An environmental, social and economic action plan for the 21 ^st Century based upon principles of sustainable development. Agenda 21 was arranged and approved by many countries during the Rio de Janeiro United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED 1992). Although it suffers from negotiated compromise and is not legally binding, it is nevertheless an ambitious first international attempt to reconcile development and environment issues. (See EARTH SUMMIT, CONVENTION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT). (MP)
AGENT ORANGE : the U.S. military code name of a mixture of herbicides used as a defoliant agent in Southeast Asia to deny communist soldiers jungle cover during the 1960s war in Vietnam. It is claimed that exposure to this agent is a cause of generations of birth defects and other inherited ailments including cancer, neuropathy and a variety of chronic diseases, however, confirmation of any such linkage would take decades of further research; thus, compensation demands from Hanoi and U.S. veterans are easily dismissed. Spraying was halted in 1971 when it was discovered that Agent Orange was contaminated with the highly toxic chemical dioxin, which is capable of harming human and animal health and has well-established multigenerational adverse health effects. Despite uncertainty as to the long-term effects of the wartime defoliant, there is the view that Washington and Agent Orange manufacturers, Dow Chemical Co. and Monsanto Co., have a moral duty to compensate Vietnamese who have suffered from exposure. (See VIETNAM WAR, DIOXIN). (IP)
AGGRESSION: Hostile or malicious actions or behavior; the act of violating by force the rights of another individual or group, including territorial rights. Aggressive behavior may have a genetic component, however it is likely to be predominantly a learned response in humans, precipitated by environmental variables such as periods of stress. Males have a higher incidence of fighting, crime, verbal aggression and fantasy aggression, although females will aggressively protect their young. Human aggression can be reduced by a nurturing environment of social responsibility from a young age. (see AGGRESSOR NATION, DESENSITIZATION, VIOLENT MEDIA, WARFARE). (MP)
AGGRESSOR NATION: The nation state which attacks, initiates or first declares a situation of warfare with another nation. Although it may sometimes be difficult, due to historical and social circumstances or wartime propaganda, the decisive determination of who was the aggressor nation can be a useful step in ethical conflict resolution, mediation and peace enforcement. (See INSTITUTION OF WAR, PEACE ENFORCEMENT) (MP)
AGRICULTURE Cultivation of crops and domestication of farm animals. Seems to have happened independently around 10 000 to 8000 BCE in the Middle East, the Orient and the Americas. Involves four processes: (1) Breeding of animals or sowing of seeds; (2) Caring for the animals or plants; (3) Collecting produce (e.g. harvesting, milking, slaughtering); (4) Selecting and keeping back some of the produce for the next generation. (MR)
AGING : A natural biological process beginning soon after birth, and ending with death. In most ancient cultures, youngsters honored aged persons, seen as experienced, wise people. Still sometimes in aboriginal groups, one of the old men or women is chosen as the shaman, and given the religious, medical and political leadership of the whole community. Today, aging is seen in western countries as a fatal issue of life, and many hope that, with ongoing progress of biomedical sciences, its happening will be thrown back many years. Also, due to better life conditions and health care programs, people get older than decades before. In both cases, a high input of money and human endeavor is needed to give aging people an adequate life quality. Ethical considerations must balance the justification of these efforts face to other more poignant problems of humanity, as is famine, misery, war mutilations, basic health care, etc. (GK)
AGNOSTIC: (Greek: agnostos 'unknown') Holding the belief that because nothing is known about the existence of God there is the need to keeps an open mind beyond physical/ biological phenomena. The Victorian biologist and philosopher T.H. Huxley coined the term stating that in his opinion the laws of Nature could quite satisfactorily explain all natural phenomena and could not find a logical need for the existence of God. [Greek agnostos unknown] (IP)
AGRICULTURAL ETHICS : The study of the ethical issues associated by agriculture, aquaculture and fishing. May also include forestry in common discussions, e.g. the Ethics in Food and Agriculture program on FAO (www.fao.org). There are numerous topics discussed in the use of agriculture, and some are reflected in documents relating to agriculture, including the debates over the use of animals, the concept of quality of life for animals, the concept of Maximum Sustainable Yield in fishing, the Land Charter, Peasant's Charter, the Pesticide Convention, and access to, and conservation of, genetic resources, for example. (DM)
AGRICULTURE : The planned cultivation and/or nurture of living organisms to provide food or other products, e.g. wool, cotton. Often also called farming. Origins are unsure, but commonly considered to be seen in the past ten thousand years of human culture. There are possible signs of agriculture in humans over the past hundred thousand years. Some agriculture is seen in other species as well, at much earlier points in history. (DM)
AGROBACTERIUM: (Agro = soil) Agrobacterium tumefaciens a common soil bacteria that can naturally carry genetic information (DNA) into plant cells by infecting wound sites on plant stems (JA)
AGRO-BIOTECHNOLOGY: The application of biotechnology to agriculture, such as the use of modern recombinant DNA technology in plant breeding programs to increase crop yield or disease resistance. In addition to creating genetically modified novel crop varieties, agro-biotechnology is also used by conservationists to maintain a viable global supply of germ plasm in order to safeguard future genetic diversity and a continuing crop inventory. (see AGROTECHNOLOGY, GENETIC ENGINEERING) (MP & IP)
AGROFORESTRY: (Agronomy + Forestry) A farming practice which integrates timber plantation with agricultural production on the same area of land. The combination of trees with crops not only provides a diversification of produce, but also provides habitat and protection from soil erosion and salinity. (See PERMACULTURE, TREE PLANTING). (MP)
AGRONOMICS: The economics of agronomy, for example the productivity of cultivation practices or the trade and distribution of agricultural products. (MP)
AGRONOMY: The science of agricultural cultivation, land and soil management, and the production of crops. (See AGRICULTURE) (MP)
AGROTECHNOLOGY: (Agronomy + technology) The application of science-based technology to agricultural production; the technological means by which humans exploit farm ecosystems, artificially eliminating natural species competition and manipulating the system to increase its yield of products of high value to humans. Examples include modern agricultural equipment such as hydroponics, agri-business such as large government-financed breeding programs, and agro-biotechnology such as genetically modified crops. (See AGRO-BIOTECHNOLOGY, AGRICULTURE). (IP & MP)
AHIMSA: The South Asian cultural ideal of being non violent. Mahatma Gandhi used the principle of non violence in his struggle for freedom from foreign occupation of India. (JA)
AI: See ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION or ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.
AID: Artificial insemination using donor sperm (see ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION).
AIDS: acronym for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome - the clinical end stage of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection which results in severe, irreversible immune suppression. After sufficient immune system damage has occurred, the individual becomes susceptible to infection by many opportunistic diseases including cancers. These opportunistic diseases then become the indirect markers of AIDS; thus, AIDS is a syndrome or collection of many diseases resulting from HIV infection. The conditions was first noticed by doctors in the 1970s and formally described under the name acquired immune deficiency state in 1980. At first AIDS was identified as principally affecting two groups: drug users who shared needles and male homosexuals but now it’s principally spread by the heterosexual community and bisexual males, and can be passed through the placenta and breast milk to the children of thosets and kills CD4+ lymphocytes (T helper cells) weakening the immune system’s ability to fight infection. HIV may also invade macrophages and brain cecourse, semen and contaminated blood. All semen donors are initially testeill within the incubation period), before the donor product may be used in any IVF clinic.
 A patient may be diagnosed as having AIDS if infected with HIV virus and a CD4+ count below 200-500 cells per milliliter of blood. Low cell count is usually accompanied by symptoms of extreme fatigue, intermittent fever, night sweats, chills, lymphadenopathy, enlarged spleen, severe diarrhea and weight loss, apathy and depression. Treatment consists primarily of combined chemotherapy, such as the antiviral drug AZT, to counteract the opportunistic infections but no cure has yet been found. Public awareness and sex education, particularly of adolescents, must remain a high priority. (See SYPHILIS). (DM+IP)
AIDS SERODIAGNOSIS : Immunologic tests for the identification of HIV (HTLV-III/LAV) antibodies; includes assays for HIVseropositivity and seronegativity which have been developed for detecting persons carrying the viral antibody. (DM+)
AIH: See ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION BY HUSBAND.
AIR POLLUTION : Gases, liquids and solids which, when added to the normal composition of the atmosphere, may be hazardous to biology, ecology or human health. Processes leading to pollution of the atmosphere include attrition, vaporization and combustion. Types and sources of air pollution include photochemical smog, transportation exhausts, incinerator emissions, forest fire smoke, industrial discharges, greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, CFCs etc.), suspended particulates, oxides of carbon and sulfur, inorganic and organic acids, toxic chemicals, trace elements, irritants and odors. Grit is sharp particulate matter such as dust which may cause skin and eye irritation. Grime is accumulated soot or dirt which adheres to a person or cityscape. Airborne particles may adsorb corrosive chemicals leading to the erosion of infrastructure and monuments. Air pollution epidemics are a recurring health problem in many major urban centers. Monitoring and regulation are beginning to improve in the developed world, with air pollution meteorology and models becoming more common in weather forecasts. Emissions may be controlled or reduced by absorption, adsorption, mechanical collection, air pollutant incineration, catalytic conversion, electrostatic precipitation, fabric filters, wet collectors, mechanical cyclones, smokestack scrubbers and other pollution control devices - often legally regulated but also self-initiated by visionary companies. (See POLLUTION, WATER POLLUTION, ATMOSPHERE, GREENHOUSE GASES, ACID RAIN) (MP)
AKIDO vs UESHIBA, MORIHEI: A Japanese martial art, based on ancient tradition derived from the Samurai. But while Japanese martial arts formerly combined both violent and peaceful aspects, Aikido is one of those arts which, after World War II, has been emphasizing the peaceful, seeing martial techniques as ways of discouraging a violent attacker without hurting him or her seriously, eventually leading to love and peace. It is for these reasons that martial arts can be important to bioethics. (FL)
ALCOHOL: (Arabic: alkohl 'subtle essence') A clear water miscible organic substance obtained by fermentation with one or more hydroxyl (OH ^- ) groups; but in common parlance refers to the ethyl alcohol or spirit contained in any beverage such as wine or liquor. [Arab alkohl subtle essence] (see ALCOHOLISM; ETHYL ALCOHOL ; FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME). (IP)
ALCOHOLISM: severe dependency on alcohol intake associated with cumulative destructive physical, reproductive and behavioral effects. The most serious medical consequences are central nervous system deterioration, liver cirrhosis and adverse reproductive effects. Alcohol abuse is the overuse of alcohol to the extent of habituation, dependence, or addiction (see ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS (AA); FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME). (IP, DM)
ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS (AA): an international nonprofit organization, founded in 1935, made up of members whose purpose is to stay sober and help others to recover from the disease of alcoholism. The AA program guides members through a 12-step plan aimed at overcoming alcohol addiction through abstinence, group support, shared experiences and faith. (IP)
ALDRIN : A dangerous chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide, one of the 'dirty dozen' persistent organic pollutants. (See PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS) (MP)
ALEXITHYMIA: lack of emotionality or an inability to consciously experience and communicate feelings (see AXIODRAMA, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE). (IP)
ALGAE: (Latin: alga "seaweed") A wide diversity of chiefly aquatic organisms comprising the seaweeds and various freshwater forms varying in appearance and size from single celled phytoplankton to multicellular macroalgae such as kelps. They are the Earth’s dominant autotrophs supplying 50-60% of all photosynthesis on Earth (see AUTOTROPH, LICHENS). (MP & IP)
ALGAL BLOOM: A suffocating build-up of rapidly multiplying algae and bacteria, occurring in phosphorus enriched waterways caused by run-off sewage, fertilizers and the processes of eutrophication. The resulting increased biological activity transforms the water-mass green or red with large-scale decomposition rendering the habitat malodorous and toxic. Since all available oxygen is utilized by the bloom, anaerobic organisms begin to dominate the sediments, killing most of the animals from the previously viable aquatic habitat (see EUTROPHICATION & FISH KILLS). (MP & IP)
ALGEBRA : the branch of mathematics in which symbols (e.g. x,y,z ) are used to represent numbers or variables in arithmetic operations. (See ARITHMETIC). (IP)
AL-GHAZALI: (1058-1111)- Muslim scholar, theologian and Sufi, author of "Ihya Ulum al-Din" ("Revivification of the Religious Sciences"). In his major work , "Ihya Ulum al-Din", Al-Ghazali explains and clarifies in four parts, the foundation of the beliefs of Islam, and the path of the Sufi. The first part deals with basic principles, the concept of worship in Islam and the importance of study and seeking knowledge. The second part deals with many matters of ethics. The third section deals with the evil traits that should be avoided, as they are an obstacle to approaching God. The fourth section deals with the stages of spiritual purification that are needed in order to attain salvation. (AG)

ALGORITHM: A set of steps or instructions which precisely describe a limited procedure or task. Computer programs are written in programming languages designed around the requirements for precision and coordination of sets of algorithms. (See COMPUTER, ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES, GENETIC ALGORITHM) (MP)

ALIEN LIFE: It is certainly possible, perhaps probable, that life is common across the universe. Readings from distant sources in the galaxy have detected some chemical constituents of chlorophyll and amino acids. One serious scientific theory proposes that ice from impacting comets may have delivered the first building blocks of life to Earth. Solar systems with planets similar to our own are relatively common, estimated conservatively by Harvard University’s Harlow Shapley at more than one hundred million fcts for life in our solar system are on Europa, oneeport flying saucers and alien abductions. Scientifent life cannot be found because it quickly tends to destroy itself with its own technology. (See LIFE, SETI, ORIGIN OF LIFE) (MP)
ALIENS : Beings from another planet. Ethical issues relating to the human attitude to aliens has been extensively discussed in science fiction literature. The term is also used in Japan and the USA to refer to foreigners. (DM)
ALLAH : Allah is special name for God in Arabic. In Islamic belief, Allah alone is the true God for all that exists who has no partners or rivals. The Quran mentions 100 names for God, which in deed they are adjectives and each one expresses one of His attributes. Allah is not a descriptive name like other ninety nine names and attributes such as The Merciful, The Beneficent. The name Allah, itself contains all these attributes. There is no consensus that the word Allah is compounded of "al" the definite article and "ilah", meaning "a god". The Qur`an mentions the word "Allah" have also been used in pre-Islamic times.This word is used by all Arabic speaking, Muslims, Christians Jews and others. (See QURAN) (AB).

ALLELES: Alternative forms of a genetic locus; alleles are inherited separately from each parent (e.g. at a locus for eye color there might be alleles resulting in blue or brown eyes). (DM) Alleles arise through mutations in a given DNA sequence. If the locus codes for a protein,  alleles can result in different phenotypes. Alleles can be dominant (a single dose is sufficient for expression of the phenotype) or recessive (both genes must carry a mutant allele in order to express the trait). At the genotype level, the alleles at a given locus are co-dominant. Different alleles can also be found in silent regions of the genome (the non-coding part of the genome) (see STR, VNTR, SNP, RFLP). Some loci are bi-allelic, having only two alternative forms, but the most useful loci for gene mapping, population studies and human identification analyses are those which are multiallelic, resulting in a high polymorphism content of the locus at the population level. (GK)

ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES : See RESOURCE ALLOCATION.
ALLOCATION RIGHTS : See QUOTA.
ALLOGRAFT : (Greek allos "other" + graphion "stylus") also called homograft, a non-permanent graft of tissue between two genetically different individuals of the same species such as a tissues transplant between two individuals who are not identical twins. The graft material can include, for example, cadaver skin stored in a tissue-bank. (See AUTOGRAFT, XENOGRAFT). (IP)
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION : Evolutionary divergence of populations which forms different species due to geographic separation, which do not interbreed. (JA)
ALLOPATRY: (Greek: allo "other" and Latin: patria "homeland"). Occupying different geographic distributions or ranges. (See ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION, SYMPATRY) (MP)
ALLOSTASIS: (Greek: allo 'variable' + stasis 'stability') literally 'achieving stability through change' describes the mechanisms which enable the body to withstand challenge. Allostatic systems, particularly the nervous, hormonal and immune complexes, protect the body by adapting to the ever-changing internal and external demands made on it. Allostatic load refers to the price of adaptation; that is, the accumulated wear and tear from chronic over- or underactivity of the allostatic systems (see STRESS, HOPE and WELLBEING). (IP)
ALLOWABLE CATCH : See TOTAL ALLOWABLE CATCH.
ALLOWING TO DIE: Thee withdrawal or withholding of life-prolonging treatment. This is often referred to as Passive euthanasia, and is sometimes effected through Do not Resuscitate (DNR) orders. (See also EUTHANASIA, FUTILITY, PROLONGATION OF LIFE, RIGHT TO DIE, TERMINAL CARE, WITHHOLDING TREATMENT). (DM)
ALPHA-1-ANTITRYPSIN : See AAT.

ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN : See MATERNAL SERUM ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN.

ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN SCREENING : A routine maternal serum screening test used for pregnant women to detect pregnancies at high risk for chromosomal disorders or neural tube defects. (See also PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS, TRIPLE TEST). (DM)
AL-RAZI (RHAZES) ; 865-925, Muslim scholar, physician and chemist. He was born at Ray, Iran. Author of works on medicine, pharmacology and philosophy. His contribution to medicine was so significant that it can be compared to that of Ibn Sina, his share, greatly influenced the development of science in general and medicine in particular. In his method, he took patient's history and clinical observation in medical practice.
He wrote around 50 books only in medicine and some of his famous books on medicine are: Al-Hawi, which contained various medical subjects and all important information that was available from Greek and Arab sources including his own remarks based on his experiences and views; "Al-Judrai Wal Hassba" was the first book to draw clear comparisons between smallpox and chicken-pox. He also prepared alcohol by fermenting sweet products. (AB)
ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS: An abnormal state of mind. Space and time may appear to be suspended, and the psyche (mind/soul) may seem detached from the body (soma). Such a condition may be the result of meditation, mystical prayer, ritualistic ceremonies, orgiastic dancing, sleep deprivation, starvation, shock, hypnosis, mental illness, mind-altering drugs and of course dreaming. (See MEDITATION, DREAM, RECREATIONAL DRUGS, HYPNOSIS, MANIA, DEPERSONALIZATION, DISSOCIATION) (IP & MP)
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY: See RENEWABLE ENERGY.

ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM: An up-and-coming alternative social framework or world-view. The new environmental paradigm places intrinsic value in the preservation of nature, is eco-centric, based on soft power and soft technology, treats economics only as a means to an end, recognizes limits to growth, condones collaborative, leisurely and sufficiency lifestyles, believes in grassroots organization, decentralization, people power and nonviolent direct action, is non-consumeristic and non-nuclear, promotes sustainable development and ethical value systems, and encourages compassion and tolerance towards other species, human groups, and future generations. (See DOMINANT PARADIGM, PARADIGM SHIFT, GREEN MOVEMENT, PEACE MOVEMENT, ANTI-GLOBALIZATION MOVEMENT, SOFT POWER, SOFT TECHNOLOGY, HIPPIES, NONVIOLENT DIRECT ACTION, ACTIVISM, DEVELOPMENT, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, PROGRESS, UTOPIA) (MP)   

ALTERNATIVE THERAPIES : Unorthodox or unconventional or complementary therapeutic systems and therapies. What is unconventional in some parts of the world may be very conventional in others. For example Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine are unconventional in the West, but quite conventional in the East. Although Western physicians have had a very negative attitude in the past, to what is regarded as unconventional, there are now increasingly many attempts at scientific clinical trials of alternative medicine. The idea of "integrative medicine", seeking to integrate the best from various methods, may replace old ideas of what is conventional and what isn't.
Concepts in some alternative therapies, like the energy which is called ki in Japanese, and chi in Chinese, are a challenge to philosophies of science which, since Newton and Hume, have been trying to rid science of mysterious concepts of energy . (DM)(FL)
The dilutions in Homeopathy, moreover, are a challenge to orthodox chemistry. Sometimes, when new developments seem to contradict science, we reject the new developments. Sometimes, we revise orthodox science. The astronomical observations made after the invention of the telescope were difficult, if not impossible, to reconcile with Ptolemaic astronomy. Rather than rejecting the new observations, Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo rejected Ptolemaic astronomy. It will be interesting to see whether the future will bring a reaffirmation of orthodox science, and a rejection of unorthodox medicine, or the exact opposite. Or perhaps there will be a new synthesis that we have not yet thought of. (DM, FL)
ALTERNATIVES: (MP) (See DECISION MAKING, DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS)
ALTRUISM : Social interaction, a behavior of doing good to another at the expense of its own welfare. Disinterested altruism is a disadvantage from an evolutionary viewpoint. A gene can be altruistic if promotes the welfare of another entity. Opp. Selfish = opposite sense. There are however interested forms of altruism, which may favour survival of the individual or the species, by being cooperative. (JA, DM)
ALZHEIMER’s DISEASE : Also called senile dementia-Alzheimer type after Alois Alzheimer, neurologist, 1864-1915. It is characterized by progressive and irreversible mental deterioration, confusion, memory failure, disorientation, restlessness, speech and movement disturbances and hallucinosis (See DEMENTIA; PSYCHOSIS). (IP+DR)
AMBIGUITY: Vague or uncertain meaning; the possibility of multiple distinct interpretations of a single expression. Ambiguity and circumlocution are tools used by politicians to avoid sensitive lines of questioning. Ambiguity can be beneficial to the spread of some memes, for example the term "sustainable development" has broad appeal to both environmentalists and developers precisely because of its ambiguity. The ambiguities of language may provide the subtleties of literature, but language precision is centrally important to bioethical policy and scientific discourse where ambiguity can obscure important assumptions or methodological details. (See DEFINITION, EUPHEMISM) (MP)
AMERINDIAN : Definition adopted by anthropologists to call the inhabitants of the Americas belonging to one of the three main linguistic families defined by Joseph Greenberg, the Amerind speaking peoples. In modern biological anthropology and genetics, this term has been adopted to designate a group of present-day native American peoples from North-, Central- and South America in all the studies of the biological variation that attempt to characterize the DNA polymorphisms of different loci in these and other human groups. Although the linguistic classification of the Native American languages remains controversial, the term is now coined for the peoples inhabiting this part of the planet. (GK)
AMINO ACID: Any of a group of 20 molecules that combine to form proteins in living things. Chemically they contain an amino group, -NH2, and a carboxyl group, -COOH. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is determined by the genetic code. There are actually 21 in number, with the 21 ^st , selenocysteine, being seldom used. They are the building blocks to form proteins, e.g. Glycine. (DM+JA)
AMNESIA: (Greek: mnasthai "to forget") Memory loss caused by brain damage or severe emotional trauma. Usually only certain sections of the memory are affected, for example anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories since the onset of amnesia, whilst still allowing the retention of language and other basic skills. (See MEMORY IMPAIRMENT) (MP)

AMNIOCENTESIS : Diagnostic sampling of the amniotic fluid during pregnancy, usually performed by insertion of a needle into the amniotic cavity which surrounds the foetus during pregnancy.  Performed for prenatal screening. (see PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS) (IP, DM). Amniocentesis is followed by either a karyotype (see KARYOTYPE ANALYSIS) to explore the possibility of a chromosomal abnormality in the foetus, or by a molecular genetic test for a particular genetic disease. Usually, amniocentesis is accompanied by genetic counselling; in the case the test results indicate a genetic abnormality in the foetus, parents are given the choice of either interrupting or pursuing the pregnancy. Amniocentesis for Down Syndrome detection is mandatory in many countries for women over 35 years, due to the increased risk from this age on, but in many countries, amniocentesis, and thus, prenatal diagnosis, is not even permitted, on grounds of the illegality of abortion. Nevertheless, bioethicists and lawyers have pointed that the right to know has to be respected above any other consideration. In the case of a positive result for Down syndrome or any other genetic condition, it may help parents and other family members in preparing themselves psychologically to accept the baby, whereas, in the case of a negative result, throwing out the presence of such a problem, the parents are relieved of an unnecessary anxiety during pregnancy (GK).

AMNIOTIC FLUID : The fluid in which the fetus floats. (JA)
AMOTIVATIONAL SYNDROME : The loss of interest, drive and progress in certain normal aspects of life. These may include social life, for example non-maintenance of friendships, lost interest in outdoor recreation or reduced sex drive; or more commonly in working life, for example a decline in productivity or performance, dropping out of student courses or regular non-attendance at work. Amotivational Syndrome may be an indication of depression, anxiety, persistent drug use or other conditions with symptoms of dullness and lethargy. (See MOTIVATION). (IP+MP)
AMPHETAMINES : Central nervous system stimulants, commonly amphetamine sulfate which has the trade name Benzedrine. Developed in the 1920s, amphetamines and their relatives have been used to treat depression, obesity, narcolepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Amphetamines are subject to abuse because of their stimulant properties, which include wakefulness, excitement and increased energy levels, but they are also attractive because of their ability to generate an addictive euphoria when they are ingested, injected or snorted. Abuse can lead to compulsive behavior, dependence, hostility, paranoia, hallucinations, physical deterioration - particularly cardio-vascular - and suicidal tendencies. Regular use may also lead to serious amphetamine-induced psychosis. Amphetamines have many street names such as "speed", "black beauties", "lid poppers", "pep pills" but also "base" which is much stronger, and "crystal meth" or "ice" which is a smokable crystalline derivative of methylamphetamine. As for most toxic addictive drugs, it takes strong motivation to quit, however, users should at all times take care to prevent conception since amphetamine abuse adversely affects sperm quality and in utero fetal development risking postnatal wellbeing. (See RECREATIONAL DRUGS, INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION). (IP)
AMPHIBIA: See FROG EXTINCTIONS.
AMYGDALA: (Greek: "almond") Part of the brain’s limbic system, specialising in thheir lives. (See EMOTION, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE) (MP)
ANABOLIC STEROIDS: Synthetic compounds with a molecular structure similar to the male sex hormone testosterone. The anabolic component promotes muscle growth and the androgenic component acts upon masculine traits in the body. They have an important function in general medical applications as; for example, in replacement therapy for men with low testosterone levels, but are also commonly illegally used as performance-enhancing drugs in dosage regimes 10 to 100 times the accepted therapeutic range. Performance enhancement is suitable for weight lifting, body building, power lifting and field events where they permit athletes to train longer and harder with improved competitiveness due to heightened aggression. Uncontrolled steroid use is damaging to health and can cause liver dysfunction and increased risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Unscrupulous scientists, malpractising doctors or misguided administrators can create a rationale that international success, especially in the Olympic Games, implies the use of performance-enhancing drugs where disputes surrounding the legality of some winning performances (catching "Fool's gold"). Traces can last for years (see ERYTHROPOIETIN or EPO). (IP).
ANAEROBE: (Greek: an + aer "without air" + bios "life") any microorganism which lives and grows in the absence, or almost absence, of oxygen. They are widely distributed in nature with just a few being infectious occurring, typically, in deep puncture wounds that exclude air or in tissue that has diminished oxygen-reducing potential. Common examples of anaerobic infections are gangrene, tetanus and botulism - the last a source of poisoning from improperly cooked or canned foods (see BOTULISM; ENDOTOXIN). (IP)
ANAEROBIC: A ny species which generally lives in the absence of oxygen (Greek: an + aer "without air" + bios "life"). (IP)
ANAEROBIC EXERCISE : Muscular exertion sufficient to result in metabolic acidosis resulting from accumulation of lactic acid - a product of muscle metabolism. This form of strenuous exercise should be avoided at all costs during pregnancy because strenuous physical activity results in many physiological changes that can affect the wellbeing of the fetus. Some of these changes are obvious; for example, severe exercise stimulates increased production of noradrenaline causing immediate contractions of the uterus, which may negatively affect the uteroplacental circulation and the fetus. The most serious argument against endurance sport and also prolonged immersion in saunas during pregnancy concerns the consequences of maternal hyperthermia or overheating. Animal studies have shown a consistent relationship between birth defects and exposure to high temperatures, although the data on human pregnancy and elevated temperature are not as consistent. Hyperthermia has at least four deleterious effects a) teratogenic effects of core temperatures of greater than 40 degrees C in early pregnancy have been conclusively demonstrated in animal studies b) effects of elevated temperature on oxygen hemoglobin-binding curves makes oxygen uptake by the fetal blood more difficult c) effects of increased maternal oxygen consumption due to temperature-induced elevated metabolic rate reduces oxygen availability for fetal consumption d) increased maternal blood flow to the skin for thermoregulation decreases uterine irrigation affecting placental transport of oxygen and nutrients. (See AEROBIC EXERCISE; ANAEROBIC; HYPERTHERMIA). (IP)
ANALOG : (Greek analogos 'proportionate'). 1. Likeness in appearance or function but not in evolutionary origin; for example, the insect eye and the mammalian eye - hence analogous. 2. Numerical information (as in analog computer) that is represented in the form of a quantity (usually a voltage) that varies in equal manner as the data but is convenient to manipulate mathematically. (See DIGITAL, COMPUTER). (IP)
ANALOGOUS : See ANALOG.
ANALOGY : (Greek analogia 'proportion'). In mathematics the identification of a general agreement or similarity between two problems or methods. For instance, analogy is used to indicate the results of one problem from the known results of the other. In biology the identification of a resemblance of form or function between organs essentially different; that is, not of common evolutionary origin. For instance, the wings of birds are analogous to the wings of insects. (See METAPHOR). (IP)
ANALYSIS : (Greek ana + lyein 'to loosen'). The branch of mathematics that uses the concept of limits - resolution to simple elements. In chemistry/biology the separation of substances into their constituent parts and the determination of their nature; for example, qualitative analysis determines what elements are present while quantitative analysis determines the quantity of each element. (See ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, SCIENTIFIC METHOD, STATISTICS). (IP)

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a series of statistical procedures for determining whether differences among groups of data are attributable to chance alone. A significance test, it determines whether there is a significant difference between the means of a number of treatment groups. As a common technique for comparison of two or more populations, care should be taken to coordinate experimental design with its requirements. Design considerations and elements of ANOVA include one-way ANOVA, two-way ANOVA, multi-factorial comparisons, randomized block designs, orthogonal designs, nested or hierarchical analyses, transformations of data, degrees of freedom, significance level and probability of Type I and Type II Errors. Tests for homogeneity of variance include Cochran’s Test for balanced data, and Bartlett’s Test for unbalanced data. Analysis of Covariance combines regression techniques with analysis of variance. (See ANALYSIS, VARIANCE, STATISTICS, SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL, TYPE I ERROR, CHI-SQUARE TEST, SCIENTIFIC METHOD) (MP & IP)

ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY: A movement begun at the beginning of the twentieth century by Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead and G.E. Moore in England, by Ludwig Wittgenstein in Austria and England and by Gottlob Frege in Germany. Originally it was an extremely demanding discipline of analysing scientific and mathematical language in terms of mathematical logic. It was thought that all knowledge consists of sense experience expressed in logical form, except for mathematics which is entirely formal. Mathematics, therefore, was thought of as a branch of logic, and all mathematical truths were to be proved from axioms of logic. (Axioms of logic are obviously true contentless statements like: "Either it is or it isn't".) In 1931, however, this was shown to be a hopeless dream when Kurt Godel published a paper proving that in any logical system which is strong enough to formulate simple arithmetic, there will be true statements which cannot be proven from the axioms of the system.
While analytic philosophy was highly mathematical at Cambridge, Oxford philosophers developed the "ordinary language" school of philosophy, analysing concepts by observation of how we use words in ordinary speech. Gilbert Ryle believed, for example, that neurobiology is irrelevant to the study of the mind: we only need analyse our uses of mental words, like "think", "feel", "imagine", etc, in ordinary language. Ethics became no longer an enquiry into what is right and what is wrong but an enquiry into how we use words like "right and wrong". An offspring of this approach is today's "descriptive bioethics". But while Oxford ordinary language philosophy was highly parochial, restricting one's investigation to how English-speaking people use words, descriptive bioethics uses international surveys to try to bridge cultural relativism. (FL)
ANARCHISM: The term is often used pejoratively, with associations of violent lawlessness. But it also has positive meanings having to do with the attempt to live without government, coercion or any uniformity of practice imposed from above. In politics, the doctrine is difficult to carry out in practice when defense requires some form of governmental organization. In individual life, however, it can be more practical and some have succeeded in living quite well while ignoring government and other coercive institutions.
A bioethical attitude inspired by anarchism is one's taking care of one's own health -- carefully observing the effects of foods and lifestyles on one's health, for example -- rather than living and eating thoughtlessly and then running to physicians to get one out of trouble. In clinical ethics, an attitude inspired by anarchism would be the rejection of national or international -- or even hospital-wide -- laws or guidelines for DNR, abortion, candidacy for IVF, etc, leaving the decisions up to ward staff meetings, including doctors, nurses and social workers, together of course with patient and family. (FL)
ANCIENT WISDOM Some people think that humans are getting wiser and more ethical in every generation. Others think that we are getting less wise and less ethical. Many cultures have traditions of ancient wisdom, which is thought of as better than what we have today. Much of these traditions are based on the idea that prophesy belonged only to the ancients, because God, or the gods, only spoke to people in the old days. But there is no emphasis that this is true. It is just as likely that there be prophesy in every generation, or perhaps prophetic periods of history, followed by empty ones, which are followed by new prophesy. (FL)
ANDROID: (Greek: andros "man" + eidos "form") Pre-dating the word "robot", the term "android" was used in reference to any machine designed in the human image or constructed to imitate human actions. In contemporary popular culture, an android is a robot difficult to distinguish from human flesh and form, perhaps a cybernetic combination of biochemical and electromechanical components. (See ROBOT). (MP)
ANENCEPHALIC: Literally the condition of having no encephalon or brain (normally applied to fetuses or infants with no cerebrum). Anencephaly is the congenital absence of all or a major part of the brain. (DM)
ANESTHESIA: The partial or complete loss of sensation with or without consciousness as the result of injury, disease, or administration of an anesthetic. (DM)
ANEUPLOIDY: Refers to an abnormal number of chromosomes observed in a karyotype. The number can be either higher (presence of a trisomy), or lower (presence of a monosomy). (JA+GK)
ANGEL: A spiritual being, perhaps endowed with personality. They were extensively analysed in Jewish philosophy of Maimonides (Moshe ben Maimon) and in the Christian philosophy of St Thomas Aquinas. Although Judaism, Islam and Christianity are sometimes thought of as "monotheistic" religions, recognizing only one God, as opposed to "polytheistic" religions which have many, it is hard to find any ontological difference between the angels of the Hebrew Bible and the gods of Hinduism and Shinto. And the Bible describes the prophets as having had many interactions with angels. Indeed there are traditions both in Shinto and in Hinduism, which interpret the many gods just like Judaism interprets angels, as many different appearances of one infinite god. (The ancient Greeks and Romans, in contrast, do not seem to have had any concept of this unity.) So the distinction between monotheistic and polytheistic religions seems to disappear, making possible more toleration of diverse religions and cults as representing many different ways of approaching one infinite God (an attitude once argued for by Sri Aurobindo).
Many scientific people today doubt that angels exist. But many scientists believe in infinitely many non-physical entities, like "sets" and "numbers", whose existence has never been proved. Unlike sets and numbers, however, angels are thought of as active. But sub-atomic particles are also very active. And sub-atomic particles do not seem to be physical objects. Because if Heisenberg was right about indeterminacy then it follows that sub-atomic particles are not physical objects. For sub-atomic particles, according to Heisenberg, have no determinate (but only statistical) simultaneous location and motion. But it is part of being physical that an object, at any given time, is at a specific place with a specific (possibly zero) motion. So we have an example of scientifically recognized non-physical objects.
Socrates thought that a daemon was guiding his conscience. The 17th Century French mathematician, physicist and philosopher, Descartes, contemplated the possibility that an evil angel was confusing his thoughts, and at about the same time Milton, in England, was writing "Paradise Lost" about "fallen angels" confusing people's ethics. The idea of angels influencing our ethics may have been a way of expressing the feeling that some of our life decisions (bioethics) are neither the result of education nor of rational investigation, but are things we are driven to do by causes which we do not understand. (FL)
ANGEL DUST : See PHENCYCLIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE.

ANGER: A negative emotional reaction associated with other bad feelings such as fear, disgust, shame, irritability, outrage, hostility and possibly even violence. Actions resulting from anger often have negative consequences, because the neurotransmitters/hormones (e.g. adrenaline) released during anger intensify impulsive action and cloud rational thought processes. (See AGGRESSION, ADRENALINE, FEAR, CONFLICT MANAGEMENT, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, TRANQUILITY, JOY) (MP)
ANGIOSPERM: The flowering vascular plants which dominate many terrestrial habitats such as deciduous forest, sclerophyll forest and rainforest. Class Angiospermae is primarily differentiated from the Gymnospermae by its mode of reproduction, which is via the seed, the fruit and the flower with its pistil and stamen. Angiosperms are divided into monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. (See FLOWER, HARDWOODS, GYMNOSPERM) (MP)

Å NGSTROM : A unit of length defined as 10 ^-10 meter. Å is used to express wavelengths of light, ultraviolet radiation and sizes of molecules. (IP)
ANIMAL : A living being with a capacity for spontaneous movement and a rapid motor response to stimulation. Animals can be divided into two groups, invertebrates (animals without backbones) and vertebrates (animals with backbones). (DM)
ANIMAL CARE COMMITTEES : Institutional committees established to protect the welfare of animals used in research. A type of ethics committee that focuses on the welfare of nonhuman animals. (See also ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION). (DM)
ANIMAL EXPERIMENTS : An experimental procedure conducted upon a non-human animal. These may be conducted for a variety of purposes, including education, medical research, cosmetic testing, product safety. There are ethics committees in many countries to regulate the experimental nature, procedure and justified purposes. (See ANIMAL RIGHTS, CLINICAL TRIALS). (DM)
ANIMAL HOUSE : A place where animals are reared and bred for experimental research, or laboratory testing, of cosmetics and other chemical substances prior to wider use. (JA+DM)
ANIMAL RIGHTS : A right is a thing to which an entity is entitled, for example, the 'right to free speech'. Traditionally only human beings have been said to possess rights and even then the term 'rights' is understood by many philosophers as having only legal currency rather than moral authority. The notion of animal rights extends rights to certain non-humans, typically those with sentience, that is, the ability to feel pleasures and pains. Those who advocate animal rights maintain that to allow humans rights but to deny them to all other species is speciesist - which is unacceptably discriminatory. There is an ethical and legal move to ascribe rights to Great Apes, and New Zealand has enacted laws which do. The UK and European Union have not enacted laws which ascribe rights to the Great Apes but it has stopped the practice of using Great Apes in medical experiments, whatever the purported benefits. (See GREAT APE PROJECT, HUMAN RIGHTS) (MR+DM)
ANIMAL TESTING ALTERNATIVES : Procedures, such as tissue culture and mathematical models, that are used in place of the use of animals in research or diagnostic laboratories. (DM)
ANIMAL WELFARE: The entitlement of animals to protection from cruelty and abuse, or to not be used solely for the benefit of humans. (See BIOCENTRIC). (DM)
ANIMISM : The belief that the boundary between human and non-human is fluid so that the things of the world, both animate and inanimate, are spirited and able to communicate or be spiritually affiliated with humans (see Dreaming). In the modern context most of us now wish to see ourselves more as a participating member of Nature by giving due regard to the interdependence of all living systems and their further dependence on physical cycles. This acknowledgment is a significant intellectual advance as it undercuts the dualistic Greco-Roman view of human and natural systems being distinct from one another and links back to ancient understandings, as substantiated in Paleolithic cave paintings at Lascaux and Altamira and the Dreamtime depictions in Aboriginal rock art. Our hunter ancestors knew Nature and its creatures (many of whom were also their deities) and respected their ethical right to exist alongside humankind. Animism probably served as an adaptive ecological mechanism by impressing a bioethical restraint upon overexploitation and abuse (see TOTEMISM & AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL) (IP+AG).
ANNELIDA : (Latin: ãnulus 'ring') The zoological phylum containing annelid worms with an internally and externally segmented body and hydrostatic skeleton. Annelida includes the classes Polychaeta (marine worms), Oligochaeta (earthworms) and Hirudinea (leeches). (MP)
ANOMALY : See DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALY.
ANONYMITY : Without a name. The concept is used in databases to protect the privacy of an individual sample by deleting the name, or identifiable information. The removal of the identifying information can occur before entering the storage facility, or database, or after. (DM)
ANONYMOUS TESTING : Epidemiological testing in which the source of the specimen or the person being tested is not individually identified; often used in testing for the prevalence of a disease. (DM)
ANOREXIA ATHLETICA: is an exercise addiction which often overlaps with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia where the cycle of forced, prolonged exercise (swimming, running, dancing) and decreasing food intake forms the basis of activity anorexia. In order to maintain an adequate energy balance, caloric needs for non-essential bodily functions; such as reproduction, are suppressed. In the human context, anorexias may have resulted from natural selection favoring those individuals who become active in times of food scarcity as stopping to eat is negatively balanced against reaching an area where food may be abundant (see ANOREXIA NERVOSA; BULIMIA NERVOSA; OBESITY). (IP)
ANOREXIA NERVOSA: (Greek: a + orexis 'no appetite') An eating disorder characterized by a prolonged revulsion to eating resulting in emaciation, loss of periods, and emotional disturbance concerning body image and fear of becoming obese. The cause of thinness cannot be attributed to a primary endocrine (hormonal) disorder but the conditions of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, emotional deprivation and calorie restriction can cause secondary endocrine abnormalities; such as delayed or absent puberty and infertility. The condition is primarily a maturational problem in adolescents who, in the majority of cases, come from dysfunctional family homes. For example, a significant proportion of patients with eating disorders were sexually molested by a family member or friend during childhood, or who associated eating with emotional distress, conflict and anxiety states (Greek a + orexis meaning no appetite) (see BULIMIA NERVOSA; ANOREXIA ATHLETICA; OBESITY) . (IP)
ANOVA: see ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE.
ANOSMIA : (Greek a + osme 'without smell'). 'Odor blindness' - the total loss or impairment of the sense of smell. Anosmia may be temporary resulting, for example, from an obstructive respiratory infection or a blow on the head which may damage the olfactory receptors, or be permanent as a result of an irreversible damage to any part of the olfactory apparatus. Sometimes anosmia (the so called specific anosmias) does not involve a total loss or reduction of the sense of smell but is instead specific to particular substances; for example, 3% of the population has trouble smelling the odor of sweat, 12% have diminished sensitivity to musky odors. It is important to note that anosmia may be induced by injuring the olfactory receptors consequent to inhaling caustic substances such as lead, zinc sulfate, or concentrated matter such as cocaine. (See OLFACTION, SENSES). (IP)
ANTARCTICA : The continent at the South of the planet Earth, where the South Pole is located. A landmass covered with ice, up to several km thick, because it is below freezing. The Antarctic Treaty is an international treaty against commercial exploitation of the mineral resources of this continent, intended to prevent pollution. Many nations have research bases on he continent, and some claim territory of Antarctica or islands off its coast. (DM)

ANTE- : Prefix denoting ‘before’ in space or time. (See PRE-, ANTI-) (MP)

ANTENATAL DIAGNOSIS : See PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS.
ANTHRAX : One of the powerful bacterial biological weapons Bacillus anthracis occurs in many different strains as skin and inhalation strains, stable in spore condition, on contact it multiplies, its toxins cause hemorrhage leading to death. (JA)

ANTHROPIC PRINCIPLE: (Greek: anthropo ‘human’) Cose exiandon Carter and developed in John Barrow and Frank Tipler’s ‘ The Anthropic Cosmological Principle’ . (See OMEGA POINT THEORY, PARALLEL UNIVERSES THEORY, HOLOGRAPHIC UNIVERSE THEORY, ANTHROPOCENTRIC) (MP)

ANTHROPOCENTRIC : A belief, doctrine or attitude in which the Universe is regarded as centered around humankind and organized in terms of human values). Anthropocentrism has been fostered by religious beliefs, placing human beings at the center of Creation, until scientific theories laid down by Darwin, Wallace and other naturalists in the mid-XIX ^th century have demonstrated that all living beings have common evolutionary roots and share mutual interdependence relationships, including our species. Bioethics based on anthropocentric views overlooks the many issues in which other species are involved, centering its attention only on human beings. ((see BIOCENTRIC). (IP, GK).
ANTHROPOLOGY: (Greek, Anthropo : man) The study of humans, regarded as the most scientific of the humanities and the humanity of the sciences. Study of human origin, social development and political organization, language, religion and art. (JA)
ANTHROPOMORPHISM: (Greek: anthropos "man" + morphe "form") The attribution of human qualities to animals, inventions and other non-human objects or organisms. Although animals may not display properties related to human intelligence, they may have variations on other human qualities such as emotions and feelings like sadness or pain. (MP)
ANTHROPOSPHERE: (Greek: anthropo "human" + sphaira "globe") The realm of human activity and infrastructure, a rapidly growing component of the biosphere. The anthroposphere has an input of materials and natural resources, and outputs a flow of waste materials. (See BIOSPHERE) (MP)

ANTI- : Combining prefix denoting ‘against’, ‘reverse’ or ‘in opposition to’. (See ANTE-, MAL-, PSEUDO-, META-) (MP)

ANTI-ANXIETY DRUGS : See ANXIOLYTICS and ANXIETY.
ANTIBIOTIC: (Anti=against; bios = life) Anti = against, bios = life, substances produced by plants/animals/microbes which can kill microbes or inhibit their growth. Synthetically produced to stop microbial infection. (Bioactive compounds)(JA)
ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE : The ability of microorganisms to adapt and survive high concentrations of a normally lethal antibiotic. The resistance is acquired by the natural selection of resistant mutants in the presence of low concentrations of this antibiotic; however, the production of resistant strains of microorganisms can also be artificially created by means of genetic technology. Antibiotic resistance is often an accidental result of medical overprescription. Another reason is the environmental release of large quantities of antibiotics which are added to the feed of factory-farmed animals. The accidental acceleration of antibiotic resistance generates an urgent race to create new drugs for combating human disease. (See ANTIBIOTIC, ANTIBIOTIC OVERPRESCRIPTION). (IP+MP)
ANTIBIOTIC OVERPRESCRIPTION : The overuse or overprescription of antibiotic drugs may result in the accelerated adaptation of resistant strains of microorganisms in the patient and the environment. Hospitals are one of the more common breeding grounds for antibiotic resistant bacteria. Antibiotics are often considered a generic treatment, and in many less developed countries are generally sold over the counter without a prescription or specialist advice. Careless use of antibiotics may also have other side effects, such as the death of useful symbiotic bacteria in the gut, or damage to the structure and function of the ear. For example, antibiotics called aminoglycosides (neuromycin, kanamycin, dihydrostreptomycin and vancomycin) may irreversibly damage hearing by attacking the hair of the cochlea, while streptomycin and gentomycin may affect coordination and balance - if continued, nerve deafness may occur. (See ANTIBIOTIC, ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE). (IP+MP)
ANTIBODY : Immune related protein produced by the body in response to a specific antigen. A blood protein (immunoglobin) produced by white blood cells in response to the presence of a specific foreign substance (antigen) in the body, with which it fights or otherwise interacts. Antibodies recognize thousands of different antigens through their highly variable antigen-binding regions, and interact with leukocytes and/or complement components to destroy the antigen. Antibodies to sperm, if present, can impair fertility by causing agglutination of sperm. Antibodies against natural components of the body can also be generated, inducing an autoimmune response and subsequent destruction of the tissue (i.e. in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis). (DM+GK+JA)
ANTICODON : Complementary to the codon of triplet code on a tRNA attracted to a complementary codon on mRNA. (JA)
ANTICOPYRIGHT: A term referring to new publications which are legally open to duplication and distribution to the widest possible audience. Poor nations are those most in need of ethical, environmental, social and medical information and resources. Anticopyright status may only be limited to poorer nations or non-profit organizations, in order to maintain economic incentives. Activist and subversive literature often bears an anticopyright label, and the internet has provided a free platform for many of the scientific and medical journals. (See COPYRIGHT, ANTI-PATENTING) (MP)
ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS : Drugs for the treatment and control of depressive illness. There exist three major groups of antidepressant drugs the monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, the tricyclic antidepressants and the latest generation serotonin re-uptake inhibitors. The latter are favored for their selective action, since the tricyclics affect a broader range of neurotransmitter systems, and MAO inhibitors can potentially interact dangerously with certain food constituents. Lithium is also used to treat bipolar disorder (manic depression), and various herbal remedies (e.g. St. John’s Wort) are also used to combat depression. (See SEROTONIN RE-UPTAKE INHIBITORS, PROZAC, LITHIUM, MONOAMINE OXIDASE, BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS). (IP+MP)
ANTIDOTE: A drug which neutralizes poisons and their effects. Antidotes may react chemically to produce harmless compounds, act mechanically to prevent absorption, or perform physiologically to produce opposite effects to the poison. Usually the stomach should also be pumped to remove the poison (and the occasionally toxic antidote), however not when this may cause damage in patients who have ingested caustic agents. (See POISON) (MP)
ANTIGEN : A foreign protein/polysaccharide, initiates immune response to form antibodies specific to it. (JA)

ANTI-GLOBALIZATION MOVEMENT: A global collective of concerned people remarkable for its breadth and diversity, including workers groups, industrial unions, human rights advocates, social workers, ethicists, environmentalists, socialists, anarchists, anti-capitalists, the anti-war movement, green movement, advocates of fair trade, forgiveness of third world debt, anti-patenting of pharmaceuticals/genes, workers rights and ecology, including people from mainstream society in both the developed and developing worlds. Commentators on the globalization debate in no particular order include George Monbiot, Susan George, Edward Herman, Naomi Klein, Anita Roddick, Ralph Nader, Charles Handy, John Ralston Saul, Francis Fukuyama, Samuel Huntington, John Micklethwait, Lester Thurow, Noam Chomsky, Michael Albert, Michael Moore, David Ransom, John Pilger, Vandana Shiva, Maria Mies, Joseph Stiglitz, David Pearce, Hunter Lovins and others. The anti-globalization movement dramatically increased its presence in the media and public consciousness with the 1999 Seattle protest gathering during the World Trade Organization conference, marred by rioting and security clashes. One section of the anti-globalization movement believes that any system which has lost control of what’s good, freedom, justice, human rights, responsonal trade agreements and global institutions (f sustainable development, global equity and etOBEDIENCE, PROTEST, PROGRESS, GLOBAL VILLAGE) (MP)

ANTIHISTAMINES: Drugs which block the histamine receptors of cells to prevent allergic response. Antihistamines are used to treat allergic rhinitis (hay-fever), allergic rashes, asthma, and the common cold. Side effects may include sleepiness, dizziness and dry mouth. (See ANTIBIOTICS) (MP)
ANTIMISSILE: A missile or other defensive measure, which involves the interception and destruction of attacking enemy missiles. (MP)
ANTIOXIDANTS : are substances which delay the oxidation (spoilage) of matter, for example, raw vegetable oils contain natural antioxidants which reduce the speed of deterioration. Antioxidants are deliberately added to prepacked foods and drugs in order to delay degradation by oxidation and increase their shelf-lives. The consumer is often led to believe that vitamin supplements having antioxidant properties should be taken daily, however, the rationale for daily use of such products has not been established. In general, healthy adult men and non-pregnant women consuming a normal varied diet do not need vitamin supplements. (See VITAMINS; FREE RADICALS). (IP)
ANTI-PATENTING: A term referring to the movement against the patenting of products which increase environmental quality and social wellbeing. Products designed for sale in the developed world can be beyond the economic reach of people in less developed nations, for example drug patents prevent equitable availability to those living with HIV or dying of other diseases. The free or economically-scaled release of such bioethical products should be encouraged and subsidised. (See PATENT, ANTICOPYRIGHT) (MP)
ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS : Drugs used to treat severe mental illnesses such as aggressive psychosis, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, mania and severe depression. They usually normalize the action of dopamine and possibly other neurotransmitters. Although antipsychotics can save people from the need for incarceration, they may have serious side effects such as dyskinesia (tremors), ataxia (staggering), seizures and lethargy. It is perhaps well to bear in mind that one-third to one-half of psychotic patients improve symptomatically - or show constructive personality change - without prescribed medication. When assessing drug effectiveness care must be taken to include adequate control groups - either untreated or treated by another type of therapy in order to avoid possible long-term risk. (See COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY, LITHIUM). (IP+ MP)
'ANTISENSE' RNA: RNA that is complementary to the nucleotide sequence of normal mRNA. It therefore forms a duplex with the mRNA preventing the mRNA being used in protein synthesis, thus indirectly controlling gene expression. (DM)
ANTI-REDUCTIONISM: Reductionism, a doctrine deriving from Auguste Comte, says that "higher-level" sciences can always be reduced, ie explained in terms of "lower-level" or more fundamental ones. Thus sociology is explained in terms of psychology, which is explained in terms of physiology, which is explained in terms of biology, which is explained in terms of chemistry, which is explained in terms of physics, which is explained in terms of mathematics. Thus all history, international relations, human relations and our mental and emotional lives are really matters of particle physics formulated mathematically. Genetic Reductionism is just a special case of reductionism explaining human life in terms of molecular genetics.
Anti-Reductionism has been formulated in terms of a number of different arguments: (I) "Not even all clinical phenotypes can be attributed to single genes, so obviously not all personality types or patterns of human action can be attributed to single genes": to which the answer is that genetic reductionism need not be single-gene reductionism, but can explain each phenotype in terms of multiple genes. (II) "Human characterists, including clinical disease, are rarely explainable in terms of genetics alone. There are also environmental -- including nutritional and educational -- co-factors.": to which the answer is that while the objection may refute Genetic Reductionism, it does not refute Reductionism in general, because maybe environmental cofactors may eventually be explained in terms of mathematical physics. (III) "Reductionism leads to the denial of free will": to which the answer is that this begs the question. Maybe free will is just an illusion anyway. (IV) "Reductionism has never been proved. Has anyone ever shown how we can really explain international relations as events on the subatomic level?": to which the answer is that we need patience. Let's see how science develops, in the meantime leaving Reductionism as an open possibility. (V) "Reductionism takes the spiritual out of life, by making everything mathematical physics." To which the answer is that maybe subatomic particles are less material and more spiritual than we have thought, as explained in the entry ANGELS (q.v.) (FL)
ANTI-SEMITISM: Semites are a loosely interrelated group of populations speaking similar languages, including Hebrew, Arabic, and such Ethiopian languages as Geez, Amharic and Tigrinya. But "Anti-Semitism" usually means the hatred of Jews. Anti-Semitism was a central doctrine in Nazi ideology. (FL)
ANTISOCIAL: Antisocial behavior conflicts with societal expectations, and may range from harmless eccentricity, through rudeness and negativity, to aggressive or psychotic behavior. (See ASOCIAL) (MP)
ANTIVIVISECTION: A movement against invasive experimentation or teaching using live animals. Nowadays, the movement has taken more moderate forms, such as the Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experimentation, which teaches the "Three R's": Replacement (of animals with tissue cultures and computer modeling), Reduction (of the number of animals used in each trial), and Refinement (of experimentation by less painful methods). The publish a scientific journal called Alternatives to Laboratory Animals , and other journals also exist. (FL)

ANTI-WAR MOVEMENT: See PEACE MOVEMENT

ANXIETY : (Latin anxietas ) anticipation of impending dread, danger or misfortune not associated with an apparent stimulus and accompanied by tension, restlessness and other adrenaline-generated physiological symptoms such as increased heart rate, throat tension, gut cramps, tremors, cold sweats and insomnia. Psychological symptoms are subjective and often "free-floating". Typical signs of psychological distress include irritability, sensitivity to constructive criticism, uneasiness about the future, feelings of uncertainty and helplessness, unconscious conflict regarding life’s essential values and goals. Anxiety disorders are complex and may take different forms (generalized anxiety, separation anxiety, panic anxiety, situationalgical variables. Anti-anxiety drugs (anxiolytics), by helping to control the physiological symptoms, provide relief. The definitive treatment, however, restsr example changes in health, self-concept or environment, maturational crises or subconscious conflicts. Anxiety differs from depression, but is typically liee FEAR, ANXIOLYTICS, DEPRESSION, GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME). (IP+MP)
ANXIOLYTICS: Anti-anxiety drugs, including sedatives and minor tranquillizers, used temporarily to treat panic and anxiety reactions in conjunction with counseling to address related underlying life-factors. (See ANXIETY) (MP)
ANZECC : Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council.
APARTHEID: A political system in which people of different races are separated. In the past in South Africa for much of the twentieth century. (DM)

APATHY: A state of not caring; not wanting to know; complacency; indifference; to ignore; disinterested in contemplation; anesthetized by popular culture; a postmodern intellectual narcosis; compassion fatigue; too lazy; too busy; self-indulgence; limited choices in work and leisure-time; non-reflection, non-deliberation and subconscious blocking of distressing information. Apathy is less ethically excusable than ignorance. Apathy implies at least subconscious knowledge of the truth - if those who know will not take action, then those who don’t know certainly won’t, and those who are the subject of oppression or ethical concern usually can’t. (See IGNORANCE, UNCERTAINTY) (MP)

APE : A class of biological organisms that are primates. Homo sapiens , chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans and so-called Great Apes. (See GREAT APE PROJECT). (DM)
APGAR SCORE : The evaluation of an infant’s physical condition, usuallybody color) that reflect the infant’s ability to adjust to extrauterine life. The initial scores are for color and respiratory effort, and if the infant’s respiratory and circulatory changes have been completed satisfactorily, the muscle tone and reflex responses can b The system was developed by the American Anesthesiologist Virginia Apgar (1909-1974) for the rapid identification osopharyngeal passage) or transfer to an intensive care unit. (IP)
APHRODITE: In Greek mythology the Goddess who represented sexual love and the joy of life. She represented two kinds of love - the satisfaction of the fleshly desires and the essential quality of good in the person who loves to perfection (see VENUS).(IP)
APOCALYPSE : The end of the world. (DM)
APOPTOSIS : (Greek: apo 'away' + ptosis 'falling') Programmed cell death is the mechanism whereby damaged, malfunctioning or unnecessary cells can be removed from the body. All animal cells carry an intrinsic genetic "death" program which is important in growth and development, and in the repair and maintenance of mature body tissues. Apoptosis is not a cause of aging; however defects in this system may contribute to age-related processes (Greek apo meaning away and ptosis falling). (IP)
APPLIED ETHICS: If theoretical ethics studies the meaning of ethical terminology and the foundations of ethical thinking, applied ethics studies the application of ethical reasoning in real life. The distinction is the same as that between Foundational Bioethics (studying the foundations of bioethical reasoning in culture, spirituality, religion, law and philosophy) and Applied Bioethics (including clinical medical and nursing ethics, environmental ethics, research ethics, etc.) There is a philosophical journal called Applied Ethics . (See APPLIED MATHEMATICS, APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY) (FL)
APPLIED MATHEMATICS : The study of the mathematical techniques used to solve problems; that is, the application of mathematics to existing systems. (See APPLIED ETHICS, APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY). (IP)
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY : That part of psychology which places its knowledge to effect in practical situations. Important branches of psychology which emphasize practical rather than theoretical approaches are educational psychology, clinical psychology, child psychology and industrial/occupational psychology. (See APPLIED MATHEMATICS, APPLIED ETHICS). (IP)
AQUABOT: Aquatic robots, or autonomous underwater vehicles. These small devices can navigate in three dimensions and use sensors to collect oceanographic data, carry out underwater mapping, measure effluent pollutants, gather military intelligence or sweep mines. Future generations of aquabots may be schooled to create a moving sensor array, and of course may also potentially be weaponized. (See ROBOT) (MP)

AQUACULTURE : (Latin: aqua 'water' + culture) A form of agriculture where plants and animals are cultures in farms in fresh water bodies. When seawater is used then it is called mariculture. In fish farming areas fishes like Tilapia and other commercially valuable fishes can be cultured. In a marine ecosystem shell fishes like Perna viridis (green mussel) oysters are cultivated as a commercial enterprise. (JA)

AQUINAS, THOMAS (1225? -1274) : The greatest of the medieval Scholastic philosophers, canonised as Saint Thomas by the Catholic Church. His philosophy is called Thomism . The Scholastics were Catholics who were known for their detailed, logical debates, often dwelling on fine and seemingly sterile distinctions to the point that they have been accused of "hair splitting". It was joked about them that they would debate for years about how many angels could dance on the point of a pin. The joke is unfair. Aquinas' detailed method of question and argument did not always lead to results. But -- like mathematical games -- it engendered habits of careful and penetrating logical thinking, which became part of the European intellectual tradition.
Following the example of the Guide to the Perplexed of MAIMONIDES (q.v.), whose influence Aquinas sometimes acknowledges, Aquinas interpreted the Bible according to Aristotelian philosophy. Although this practice was at first objected to by other Church authorities, it eventually became so embedded in European Christian culture that disagreeing with Aristotle was considered to be at least as heretical as disagreeing with Jesus. This attitude remained until criticised by the mathematical and scientific philosophers of the Seventeenth Century, like Rene Descartes, and by the Protestant Reformation.
Aquinas was also familiar with Arabic philosophy, and disagreed with European followers of Ibn Roshd, who were referred to as the Latin Averroists. In his tract , On the Unity of the Intellect against the Averroists , Aquinas attacks Siger of Brabant. In the Aristotelian philosophy, that element of the soul, which is responsible for intellectual understanding, is called the Agent Intellect. Aristotle thought that the agent intellect is eternal. Ibn Roshd accepted this idea, and argued that there is only one agent intellect, which is shared by all humans. Maimonides' doctrine seems to have been similar, as he refers to the agent intellect as an angel. Siger of Brabant, however, went further and argued that the passive elements of intellection are also common to all humans. This is tantamount to monopsychism, the doctrine that there really is only one soul, in which we all share. This made Aquinas quite angry, because it seems to provide a philosophical basis for forgiving sinners too easily. For, as Latin Averroists seemed to believe, if Saint Paul's soul is saved, and if my soul is the same as that of Saint Paul, then my soul is already saved as well. So even if I sin all I like, I will get to heaven. Aquinas' On the Unity of the Intellect is a polemical diatribe against this doctrine. But monopsychism seems bioethically appealing nonetheless. It seems to affirm the unity and solidarity of all humans, encouraging love. And why shouldn't we welcome reasons for forgiving people? (FL)
Aquinas' Doctrine of Double Effect has had considerable influence on bioethics. It says that it is permissible to do an act which produces an unethical effect, when the act is performed with the intention of achieving another effect which itself is ethical. The unethical effect may be foreseen, but it must not be intended. Thus, priests have permitted birth control pills if the intended effect is to regulate the menstrual period, and not to prevent conception. The doctrine is used to permit giving patients high doses of opiods like morphine or heroin, even if death is a foreseen result, when what is intended is not death but relieving pain. This application of the doctrine has been hotly debated. (FL)

ARBITRARY: Uncertain; random; accidental; discretionary; outside of central relevance to the methodology, law or principle, therefore accepting of individual choice and subjectivity. (MP)
ARBITRATION: The hearing and resolution of a dispute by a person or legal body (arbitrator) chosen by the disputing parties or appointed by government statute. (See MEDIATION, NEGOTIATION, FACILITATION, DISPUTE) (MP)

AREA OF OCCUPANCY: See POPULATION DISTRIBUTION.
ARETAIC ETHICS : The principle of centrality of employing moral agents as the basis of change. (JA)
ARISTOTLE (c. 384-322 BC) Perhaps the most famous of Greek philosophers, he influenced Islamic, Jewish and Christian philosophy. Author of works on logic, philosophy, natural science, ethics, politics and poetics. He believed in living according to a "middle road" between extremes (an idea which is also found in Buddhist writings, leading to the question whether it began in Greece or much farther East). He thought that the most ethical life is the life of intellectual activity, in which we become most similar to and beloved by the gods. His main ethical works, the Nicomachean Ethics and the Politics, were the crowning finale to a massive corpus including logic, scientific method, philosophy of mathematics, physics, biology and metaphysics. This raises the question whether todays specialized BA, MA and PhD programmes in ethics are the best way to educate bioethicists. Perhaps they should start with more science and substantive philosophy, like Aristotle.
Aristotle said that it is a mark of maturity not to seek more precision than one's subject can allow, and that ethics -- more of an art than a science -- is incapable of the degree of precision which mathematics and physics allow. This implies harsh criticism for philosophers like the utilitarian, Bentham, who sought an ethical calculus which would give definitive answers to questions, as well as for those who try to quantify ethics through statistical surveys. (FL)
ARITHMETIC : The study and the understanding of the structure of the number system and the skills necessary to manipulate numbers in order to solve problems. Numbers may be manipulated to advantage from one form to another, for example, fractions to decimals. (See ALGEBRA, ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, SCIENTIFIC METHOD, STATISTIC). (IP)
ART see also ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY
ARTHROPODA : Name of a phylum in the animal kingdom. Animals (arthropods) that have joined appendages. E.g. Fly, Crabs, Millipedes, Scorpions etc. (JA)
ARTIFICIAL: Created, produced or imitated by humans. Not occurring in nature, or not the genuine article. Artificial creations such as new chemical products, newly designed drugs or genetically modified organisms may have unpredictable effects on biological or ecological systems, as they have not been tested by any previous evolutionary process. (See ARTIFICIAL LIFE, GENETIC ENGINEERING) (MP)
ARTIFICIAL FEEDING : Feeding other than by mouth. The terms, Enteral feeding, Parenteral feeding, and Tube feeding are used . (DM)

ARTIFICIAL HABITAT: ‘Artificial habitat’ is sometimes used in an extreme envich included humansearch on the safety of artificial habitats will be required before colonization of the moon becomes realistic. (See HABITAT, BIOSPHERE 2 PROJECT, INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION) (MP)

ARTIFICIAL HYMEN: a synthetic membrane that is stitched in place to seal the vagina before the marriage ceremony. The operation is practiced in cultures where virginity (virtue) at marriage is regarded as desirable or even mandatory. (IP)
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION: The introduction of sperm into a woman's vagina or uterus by noncoital methods, for the purpose of conception. The procedure is done either with semen from an anonymous donor (artificial insemination by donor or AID) or from semen provided by the partner or husband (artificial insemination by husband AIH). AID is recommended when the partner is infertile or in cases in which he is a carrier of a serious genetic defect. Assuming normal fertility in the female, tested donor semen results in a pregnancy in 70% of the cases and is, therefore, one of the major treatments for male infertility. The procedure does not carry an increased risk of spontaneous abortion or congenital anomalies. AIH has a much lower success rate but is useful in cases of paraplegia (sperm is collected by electroejaculation), obstructed vas deferens or epididymis (sperm is aspirated from the epididymis) and forced separation of couples (prisoners on long-term sentences). AI as a technique has been practiced for centuries as a tool in livestock production and its application has been broadened to include conservation programs for endangered species. The first recorded human birth after AIH was in 1790 when the Scottish physician John Hunter inseminated a woman with epididymal sperm from her husband who had urethral defect (see artificial insemination by husband, ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY). (IP, DM)
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION BY HUSBAND : The procedure is used in cases of paraplegia, obstructed vas deferens or epididymis and forced separation. It is also used widely for idiopathic (cause unknown) infertility. Between 15-30% of women become pregnant during six insemination (menstrual) treatment cycles, significantly less successful compared with donor insemination purporting a reported 60% birth rate after six insemination cycles. (See ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION, DONOR INSEMINATION). (DM+IP)
ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES: Many ‘artificial’ or ‘auxiliary’ languages have been invented and used to facilitate international communication and understanding. These have included Volapük (‘World language’ 1880), Esperanto (‘Lingvo Internacia’ 1887), Idiom Neu986). Natural languages have been modified or simplified, for example Latino Sine Flexione (Latin without inflections) and BASIC English ('British American Scientific International Commercial English') with its selective 850 word vocabulary. Other languages have evolved (e.g. slang and jargon), merged (e.g. pidgins and creoles), been developed by necessity (e.g. sign language and shorthand) or for specialized purposes such as computer programming (e.g. Basic, Pascal and Java). Other artificial languages are just plain fun, for example Solresol ('Langue Musicale Universelle'), whose syllables are based on the musical tones such that it can be spoken, sung or played. (See ESPERANTO, PIDGIN, LINGUISTICS, SEMIOTICS, MULTIMODAL COMMUNICATION, TRANSLATION SOFTWARE) (MP)

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the computer modeling and software simulation of human intelligence and other mental processes. Such intelligence would include holding a conversation, problem-solving, thought processing, object manipulation, playing chess, writing stories, translating, speech recognition, pattern recognition (vision), interactivity and learning. Current commercial AI has been slow to match the science fiction dreamers in simulating human mental functions. However, the evolution of technology is accelerating and tends to progress in sudden surges. ‘Expert Systems’ and ‘Decision-Support Systems’ are the practical application of AI research. They are used for solving problems and making decisions in a particular domain, for example ‘Cyc’ is inn of AI. Bionics, cybernetics and the cyborg are medical applications of AI. Combination of all these technological features of intelligence is called the ‘top-down’ approach to AI, whereas the ‘bottom-up’ approach is the endowment of ‘Artificial Life’ with the powers of replication, adaptation, learning and self-evolution. Popular science fiction such as Hollywood’s Matrix have presented the possibility of the human species being superseded by the evolution of artificial intelligence. Despite skepticism, scientific risk-analysis and ethical debate is required because of the extreme consequences to humanity from such a scenario. Scientific and philosophical debate has not been able to rule out the possibility of silicon-based life - works such as The Emperor’s New Mind by Roger Penrose which have tried to refute the possibility have had their assumptions criticized. It seems that certain thresholds or previous limits to the creation of artificial intelligence are likely to be breached by advances in quantum computing, nanotechnology and/or molecular electronics. These advances combine immense increases in processing power with the replication and manipulation of molecules and atoms, and add carbon (organic molecules) to the traditional silicon of microcircuits. Whether or not all definitional requirements for ‘life’ or ‘intelligence’ are met, something much like these things is on the technological horizon. Even today, non-sentient information databases and other computerized technology are taking over our daily transactions – whether individually (automated workplace, privacy, ‘Big Brother’) or collectively (over-reliance on technology). (See ARTIFICIAL LIFE, EXPERT SYSTEM, ROBOTICS, ROBOT ETHICS, INTELLIGENCE, CYBORG, BIONICS, BIG BROTHER, DEEP BLUE, TURING TEST) (MP)
ARTIFICIAL LIFE: Software and hardware which has similar characteristics to living organisms. The ‘top-down’ approac out to be quite cute, for example the camera and gyroscope-faced ‘Cog’ and ‘Kismet’, or the insect-like heat-sensing six-legged ‘Genghis’… but endowed with artificial intelligence in a terrain of unmanned vehicles and autonomous weapons it is a different story. The opposing mode of research into artificial life is the ‘bottom-up’ approach, which allows artificial life to create itself through the powers of evolution. Using nature as the model, programs such as ‘genetic algorithms’ and ‘cellular automata’ are created with. Examples of ear internet, with iintranets and firlar electronics atween natural selection in organisms/cells and that of cellular automata is that biological evolution selects among random variations, whereas variation in artificial life may be heuristically directed . The potential ethical danger from this is that artificial life can evolve at an incredibly greater speed than any biological system. The internet provides a very difficult-to-control habitat with a rich informational database, and could perhaps eventually support a very diverse form of cyber-ecology or central intelligence. (See LIFE, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, INTELLIGENT AGENT, CELLULAR AUTOMATA, COMPUTER VIRUS, WORM, ROBOTICS, ROBOT BUSH) (MP)

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS: Computational models which emulate biological neural networks. Artificial neural networks contain components and functions analogous to neurons, for example the processing element (nucleus), network node (soma), inputs (dendrites), output (axon) and signal weight (synapse), though without all of the layers of complexity of biology. Artificial neural networks are associative memory systems using inductive reasoning, self-organization and parallel processing similar to the human brain. They are driven by data, and function by scanning many case studies for common patterns. They can function despite the presence of ambiguity by using induction, associative memory or fuzzy logic.  (See NEURAL COMPUTING, NEURAL NETWORKS, SWARM INTELLIGENCE, GENETIC ALGORITHMS, SMART DUST) (MP)
ARTIFICIAL ORGANS : Medical devices used as replacement for body tissues. (See ORGAN TRANSPLANTS) (DM)
ASBESTOSIS: See SILICOSIS.
ASCORBIC ACID: See VITAMIN C.
ASEAN: Association of South East Asian Nations.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Reproduction of organisms by purely vegetative means without the function and interaction of the two sexes. Examples of commonly asexually reproduced plants are roses, peach trees, and lilies. All plants can produce vegetatively, but many normally use sexual reproduction. (DM+IP)
ASHKENAZI JEWS : "Ashkenaz" means Germany in Hebrew and "Sefarad" means Spain. In popular language Ashkenazi Jews are those whose ancestors lived during the exile in Northern Europe, while -- because many Spanish Jews fled eastward after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, Sefaradi Jews are thought of as those from North Africa and the Middle East. But this is a misconception because many Spanish Jews fled to Northern Europe after the expulsion, and many so-called Ashkenazi Jews are descended from them. Also, many North African and Middle Eastern Jews are descended from families who were never in Spain. These include most notably the "Bavlim" (Babylonians) who were in Iraq since Biblical times, the Yemenites, who were in Yemen since Biblical times or shortly thereafter, and Israeli families who have been in Israel continuously since Biblical times. There are also communities who were never either in Europe or the Middle East before they immigrated to Israel. These include the Ethiopian community, and the Kochinim (from Kerala in Southwest India) who were in their exilic homelands at least since the time of the Second Temple.
Ashkenazi Jews are often mentioned in genetic medicine because of a number of genetic diseases -- notably Gaucher, Tau-Sachs and breast cancers -- which occur particularly frequently in this population, and have attracted much research interest. (FL)
ASOCIAL: Asocial behavior refers to withdrawal from society, including inhibition, inconsideration and avoidance of others. It may often be accompanied by anxiety and depression. (See ANTISOCIAL) (MP)
ASPHYXIA: (Greek: a + sphyxis 'without pulse') Severe reduction of oxygen in the blood resulting in loss of consciousness and, if not reversed, death. Causes can be varied; for example, drowning, inhalation of toxic gas or smoke, poisoning and blockage of respiratory tract. The condition is of specific concern in some newborns where it may develop during labor or immediately after delivery due to, for example, prematurity or the effects of anesthetics and analgesics (Greek a + sphyxis without pulse) (see INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION and HYPOXIA). (IP)
ASPHYXIATION : (Greek a 'without' + sphyxis pulse). Suspension of breathing due to an abnormally low oxygen concentration in the lungs. The condition may be brought about by a) obstruction to the passage of air to and from the lungs as in drowning, presence of foreign bodies/malignant growths in the air passages, b) insufficient oxygen supply in the air, c) poisonous (asphyxiant) chemical substances causing suffocation. Whatever the cause severe hypoxia, if not corrected quickly, leads to hypoxia risking brain damage, irreversible paralysis and ultimately death. (See HYPOXIA). (IP)
ASPIRIN : Acetylsalicylic acid (C ₉ H ₈ O ₄ ) probably the most widely used over-the-counter analgesic bought for headache, dental pain and symptomatic relief in flu. It has been the mainstay of pain relief for 100 years but despite this its mechanism of action is not fully understood, however, it seems to reduce pain by acting on blood platelets which are involved in the process of inflammation. For this reason aspirin is also a mainstay in arthritis and is valuable in forestalling heart attacks; however, it does not offer heart-attack protection. Aspirin is the standard against which other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are measured. It is important to take the medication with food to prevent gastrointestinal irritation. (See ANALGESIC; CORTICOSTEROIDS). (IP)
ASSASSINATION: (Assassin from Arabic hashshashin 'hash eaters') The surprise murder of a prominent political or public figure for the purposes of making a statement or otherwise changing the course of human events. Rightly branded as terrorism during times of peace, assassination may become common practice during times of war. National non-assassination policies should be encouraged, especially in Western democracies. International systems of justice and intervention should be empowered to provide just and legal alternative means. (MP)
ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY (ART): Infertility treatment where "assisted" means "technologically assisted" which include Ovulation Induction, Artificial Insemination (AI), In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) and subsequent Embryo Transfer (ET), Gamete IntraFallopian transfer (GIFT), sperm microinjection techniques such as IntraCytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI), Fallopian tube transfer of ICSI eggs (FICIT), Cytoplasmic Transfer, frozen preservation and storage (Cryopreservation) of sperm, eggs and embryos and their subsequent thawing and transfer as in Frozen Embryo Transfer (FET), the use of donated sperm, eggs and embryos (Tissue Banking), Surrogacy, and any other form of medical or surgical treatment that may be used to assist in establishing and/or maintaining a pregnancy. Cloning technology is not medically available (see separate entry for each technology). (See Individual entries) (IP)
ASSISTED SUICIDE : Provision of information and/or the means to enable a patient to take his or her own life. (See also EUTHANASIA). (DM)

ASSUMPTION: 1. An axiom or statement, not necessarily true but put forward and taken to be true to enable further analysis of a hypothesis, or for the purposes of investigating what follows in relation to a theory. 2. A presupposition, or the basis of an assertion, required to be true for the assertion to be true. Assumptions are often unstated or even unknown, but implied by the associated theory or argument. Almost all thought processes and knowledge are based upon some assumptions. (See AXIOM, THEORY, HYPOTHESIS, CONJECTURE, PREMISES) (MP)

ASTHMA : Asthma, or a pathological shortness of breath, can be treated by various drugs. MAIMONIDES(q.v.)  in his medieval Treatise on Asthma, maintained that it can be  treated psychosomatically, by calming the mind.  One of the authors of this dictionary has cured himself of an addiction to an asthma inhaltor of over twenty years, by combining breathing from Yoga and from Japanese martial arts.  He inhales through the mouth, for  a count of seven, drawing the air down to the "tanden", w h ich is the centre point between the naval and the pubic bone, and allowing the air to expand the lower abdomen.  Then, without releasing any air, he switches to breathing in through the nose, again for a count of seven,  but this time expanding the chest a nd (imagining the chest to be open at the bottom like an upturned barrel) drawing air up from the tanden into the upper chest.  He then holds his breath for a count of seven, and then while counting again to seven, releases it through the nose.   He does t his excercise while standing and raising his arms higher, and higher, in order to open the chest as much as possible.  He also does it while sitting in Japanese "seiza" position, either raising the arms, or simply letting them rest on his lap.  This metho d has not yet undergone controlled clinical trial. ( See CORTISOL). (FL)

ASTROBIOLOGY: Astrobiology and exobiology are the study of and search for potential life or biological activity outside the boundaries of the planet’s biosphere; its possible characteristics, location, likelihood and relevance to the origins of life on Earth itself. (See ALIEN LIFE, ORIGIN OF LIFE) (MP)
ASTRONAUT: The astronaut or cosmonaut is an intrepid human visitor outside of the Earth’s atmosphere into space. (See SPACE EXPLORATION,  EARTH FROM SPACE) (MP)
ASTROLOGY Art or science of determining the purported influence of the stars and other heavenly bodies on human affairs. (MR)
ASTRONOMICAL UNIT: A unit of distance in space, defined as the mean distance from the center of the Earth to that of the Sun, or about 149.6 million kilometers. (See LIGHT YEAR) (MP)
ASTRONOMY: The science of the stars and space. Astronomy includes the universe as a whole (cosmology), its component matter, energy and interactions (astrophysics) and often the philosophical theory beyond the math (metaphysics). (See COSMOLOGY, ASTROPHYSICS, ASTROBIOLOGY, METAPHYSICS) (MP)
ASTROPHYSICS: The physics, chemistry, mathematics and metaphysics of the stars and the universe. (See COSMOLOGY, ASTRONOMY) (MP)

ASYLUM: 1. a place of sanctuary, a refuse (see women’s shelter) 2. A place used for the detention and treatment of the mentally ill (see insanity). (IP)
ATHEIST : Someone who does not believe in the existence of God. (DM)
ATMOSPHERE: The envelope of gases and particles surrounding the Earth, within which are maintained homeostatic conditions for life. Environmental indicators for the atmosphere usually concern air quality or climate. The troposphere is the lower atmosphere up to about 20km, in which minor gases, particles, water vapour and carbon dioxide have a significant effect and where most weather takes place. The stratosphere is from about 20-50km and contains much of the ozone layer. Above that are the mesosphere and thermosphere before the vacuum of space. (See GLOBAL WARMING, GREENHOUSE EFFECT) (MP)
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION : See AIR POLLUTION.
ATOM: The atom is the building block of matter. An atom is composed of positive protons and non-charged neutrons in its nucleus, surrounded by shields of negative electrons. All atoms of an element are different from the atoms of another element. The atomic number of an element is its positive charge - the number of protons in its atoms. The protons and neutrons are composed of different types of quarks. Atoms can emit energy and radiation. (See ATOM BOMB, ELEMENT, QUARK) (MP)
ATOM BOMB : Bomb in which the explosive power, measured in terms of equivalent TNT, is provided by the nuclear fission of material such as ¹³⁵ Uranium or ²³⁹ Plutonium. The bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was of this type. The most tragic moment in human history was fifteen minutes past eight on the morning of August 6, 1945 when the first atom bomb ever was dropped on the earth and exploded above Hiroshima city. That one explosion reduced the entire city to ashes and 247,000 lives were instantly wiped out. Gamma rays and neutrons produced by atomic explosions penetrate deeply into animal tissues causing immediate death or delayed effects, known as radiation sickness, observed as internal bleeding, vomiting, diarrhea and skin lesions which may become evident months after exposure. Moreover, the offspring of those exposed to radiation may be affected by harmful mutations that can reappear in future generations. The post-war Japanese constitution completely renounces war and advocates permanent peace for the world something that had never been done before in the history of humankind. The Japanese people accepted the Potsdam Declaration in a spirit of repentance for the destruction and misery inflicted upon a large number of human beings by the militaristic Japan of the war years. (See HYDROGEN BOMB; NUCLEAR WINTER; NUCLEAR FISSION; NUCLEAR FUSION; NEUTRON BOMB, PLUTONIUM). (IP)
ATOMIC POWER: Using the energy that is created when an atom is divided, especially for electricity production. (DM)
ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD): is the latest term designating a chronic disorder that begins early in childhood and is manifested by problems of awareness, difficulty with attention, excessive motor activity (hyperactivity) and poor impulse control (impulsiveness). It is among the most common causes of behavioral disturbances, estimated to affect 3-5% of school-age children with highest risk in boys. Symptoms associated with ADHD (although not called this at the time) were first described in 1902 by British pediatrician George Still. Still, correctly, suggested that behaviors he had observed amongst certain children in his practice were not caused by bad parenting but a subtle unidentified brain injury. Recent evidence points to a brain-based biological disorder where a possible genetic predisposition is activated by stressful environmental factors. Environmental factors such as hypoxia, pre-, peri- and postnatal trauma have been implicated, as has exposure to toxic substances such as alcohol, cocaine, nicotine, marijuana and lead. ADHD individuals have lower than normal levels of selected neurotransmitters, dopamine in particular, which means that the brain will metabolize more slowly. (See BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS, RITALIN HYDROCHLORIDE). (IP)

AUGUSTINE: (354-430, Numidia), also called Saint Augustine of Hippo, original Latin name was Aurelius Augustinus. Was one of the Latin Fathers of the Catholic Church, one of the Doctors of the Church, and is considered by many as the most significant Christian thinker after St. Paul. Augustine 's adaptation of classical thought to Christian teaching created a theological system of great power and lasting influence. His numerous written works, the most important of which are Confessions and City of God , shaped the practice of biblical exegesis and helped lay the foundation for much of medieval and modern Christian thought.  More than five million words of his writings survive. He adapted Platonic tradition to Christian concepts. (DM)

AUNG SAN SUU KYI : See SUU KYI, AUNG SAN.
AURA: An aura is a kind of light which seems to surround human beings. It may also surround animals, plants and even inanimate objects. Kirlian photography, invented in Russia, seems to be a method to photograph auras. People may have varying degrees of ability to see auras, or to read their meanings. The halo, seen in Christian and Buddhist religious paintings, seems to have been an aura, representing the strong light which highly spiritual people seem to project. The lehat, or light surrounding the sword which protected the Biblical Garden of Eden (Genesis III, 24) may also have been an aura.
Some methods of spiritual healing are said to word by way of the aura. In Rei-Ki healing, the healer massages the aura more than the body. Sometimes one can get a feeling for the aura with no need to touch the person's body, although it is often necessary to begin by touching the various points on the body, either through clothing or directly, in order to get a feeling for the aura. Special Rei-Ki training is usually needed, to acquire this ability. Some trained Rei-Ki people can feel the aura more strongly than they can see it. (See Haloes ) (FL)

AUSCHWITZ : In Polish Oswiecim ,  also called Auschwitz-Birkenau. Nazi Germany's largest concentration camp included a prison, an extermination camp, and a slave-labour camp. Auschwitz has become the symbolic site of the “final solution,” a virtual synonym for the Holocaust. Newly arrived prisoners at the death camp were divided in a process known as Selektion . The young and the able-bodied were sent to work. Young children and their mothers and the old and infirm were sent directly to the gas chambers. Thousands of prisoners were also selected by the camp doctor, Josef MENGELE, for medical experiments. Auschwitz doctors tested methods of sterilization on the prisoners using massive doses of radiation, uterine injections, and other barbaric procedures. Experiments involving the killing of twins, upon whom autopsies were performed, were meant to provide information that would supposedly lead to the rapid expansion of the “Aryan race.” Subject to harsh conditions—including inadequate shelter and sanitation—given minimal food, and worked to exhaustioto Auschwitz. Between 1.1 and 1.5 million people died at Auschwitz; 90 percent of them were Jews. Also among the dead were gypsies .Auschwitz was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. (DM)

AUSTIN, J: See ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY.
AUSTRALASIA : The land masses of Oceania in the South Pacific together with Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea and associated islands (Latin australis = southern + Asia). (IP)
AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL: The indigenous Australians believe that they have been in Australia since the Dreamtime or Creation. Although their origin is still unsubstantiated scientifically, it is hypothesized that they migrated from the South East Asian region more that 50,000 years ago when the sea was at its lowest levels and more exposed land enabled such a crossing (see GONDWANA).
Among Australia’s indigenous peoples many cultures exist and Aboriginal people identify as both indigenous and, whenever possible, also as a member of their language group; that is, coming from a particular place/country each identifiable by its own creation stories (see Dreamtime and Dreaming). It is estimated that at the time of invasion (Captain Phillips’s landing at Botany Bay, Sydney, in 1788) there was a population of about 3 million Aboriginal peoialects - each with their own country and culture. These days, over 250 languages are spoken and tmostly English words and indigenous language structures; such as the creole, known as Kriol, spokents ensured that being identified as Aboriginal could mean further loss (see Reconciliation). Abor prevented from speaking their language or practicing their culture, and their children were denie taken away from their families to be placed in institutions, or brought up by non-Aboriginal fami by living a European lifestyle and agreeing not to associate with any Aboriginals, exceptions (re Aboriginal, for example, was awarded a certificate of citizenship in 1957 in recognition of his alcohol with his kin (the supply of alcohol was a criminal offense), was imprisoned and died soon ay the Australian electorate, granted Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples full citizenshins many of the traditional values and assumptions. (IP)

AUSTRALOPITHIECUS : Apaleoanthropological studies have identified many human like fossils and fossil humans.It is a prehuman fossil, also called The Ape Man, was located in south and East Africa, dating back to about 5 million years ago. It exhibits bipedalism, has protruding jaws and a small brain cavity. When compared to the bigger cranial cavity of Modern Homo sapiens. (JA)

AUTHORITARIAN: Demanding total obedience and refusing to allow people freedom to act as they wish. (DM)
AUTISM : (Greek autos "self") a little understood rare (4 in 10,000 live births) mental disorder first named by Leo Kanner, an American psychiatrist, in 1943. The condition is characterized by extreme social withdrawal and inability to communicate verbally or emotionally with people. Impairment of social interactions may be due to an abnormal interest in fantasy engendered by delusions and hallucinations resembling schizophrenic withdrawal in adults. The onset of this pervasive developmental disorder may be in infancy or early childhood and is characterized by internally-stimulated thinking where ideas have a private meaning and abnormal ways of relating to people, objects and situations. Recent findings suggest that organic, rather than psychological, injuries in the limbic system (the brain's emotional center) might explain some elements of autistic behavior. Although far more autistic children have sub-normal levels in IQ than would be expected from the normal continuum of all levels of intelligence, a small number possess superior intelligence and/or certain skills related to their lateral thinking or highly-focused attention on aspects of interest. The best educational approach is thought to be sympathetic but formal instruction. (IP+MP)
AUTOGRAFT : (Greek autos "self" + graphion "stylus") a permanent transplantation of any tissue from one site of the body to another site in the same individual. Autografting is typically used in medical surgery such as the replacement of lost skin in cases of severe burns, or in plastic surgery such as the remodeling of facial features. (See ALLOGRAFT, XENOGRAFT). (IP)
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE : A disorder in which the immune system fails to recognize self and directs an immune response against its own body tissues. Among human autoimmune diseases in which components of the body are attacked by its own immune system are rheumatic fever, rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis and myasthenia gravis (muscle weakness). (IP)
AUTOMATIC WEAPONS : Automatic weapons enable rapid fire by using some of the explosive energy to eject the shell and automatically reload the next bullet into the chamber. An automatic weapon fires in a continuous stream for as long as the trigger is depressed. A semi-automatic weapon fires one bullet for each click of the trigger. Mobile or mounted automatic weapons of varying sizes are also known as machine guns. The smaller sub-machine gun is designed for portability and flexibility, with lightweight frame and short barrel usually firing pistol ammunition. Many non-violent countries restrict or severely regulate civilian ownership of automatic weapons. (See SMALL ARMS, AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS) (MP)
AUTOMATON : (Greek: automatos 'acting of itself') An early term for a mechanical device or simple robot able to self-perform or imitate real-life actions. Sometimes used as derogatory for a person who goes through life with a mechanically predictable and ordinary routine. Descartes argued that animals may also be mere automata, wholly governed by the laws of physics. (See ROBOT, CELLULAR AUTOMATA) (MP)
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM : The motor nerve fibers supplying the glands, organs and smooth muscles of the vertebrate body, including the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems; the elements of the nervous system which automatically manage the functions of internal organs such as pulse and digestion. (See CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM) (MP)

AUTONOMOUS: Ability to operate on one’s own. (See AUTONOMY) (MP)

AUTONOMOUS UNDERWATER VEHICLE: See AQUABOT.

AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS: An ethically perilous form of missiles and other robotic weapons, endowed with onboard ‘intelligence’ to locate themselves, navigate and destroy the enemy without direct external guidance or tele-operation from humans. Euphemistically called ‘smart’ weapRFARE, ROBOTICS, AUTOMATIC WEAPONS, MISSILES) (MP)

AUTONOMY: (Greek: autos 'self' + nomos 'law') The governing of one's self according to one's own system of morals and beliefs. 1. the absence of external constraint and a positive power of self-determination often applied to the right of personal freedom in actions, choices, beliefs and preferences. Bioethics uses autonomy as self rule, though the term self-love has been 2. in political philosophy the right of self-government of community, group or state, to formulate and enforce its own laws, policies and affairs; being independently accountable 3. biological organic independence evolved and controlled by natural laws and not subject to any other [Greek autos meaning self and nomos meaning law] (IP+DM)
AUTOPSY : Postmortem examinations.
AUTORADIOGRAPHY: A technique that uses X-ray film to visualize radioactively labeled molecules or fragments of molecules. For example it is used in analyzing the length and number of DNA fragments separated by electrophoresis. (DM)
AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE DISORDERS : Disorders, where for a person to be affected, a mutation has to be inherited from both parents. Such parents are usually unaffected carriers because they only have a single copy of the mutant gene. Recessive disorders commonly have onset in childhood and include cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease and thalassaemia. (JA)
AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT DISORDERS : Disorders where inheritance of a mutation from one parent only (or arising anew during egg or sperm formation) can be sufficient for the person to be affected. Dominant disorders include familial hypercholesterolaemia, Huntington’s Diease, adult polycystic kidney disease and neurofibromatosis. (JA)
AUTOSOME: A chromosome not involved in sex determination. A chromosome other than sex chromosomes. The diploid human genome consists of 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes. (DM)
AUTOTROPHS: (Greek autos 'self' + trophe 'food') Are self-sufficient organisms that are capable of obtaining their energy for life from exclusively inorganic materials, water, and some energy source such as sunlight (photosynthesizing plants) or capture their energy from converting inorganic chemical reactions involving iron or sulfur (autotrophic bacteria) (Greek autos self + trophe food). (Contrast HETEROTROPHS) (IP)
AUXIN : (Greek: auximos 'promoting growth') A plant growth (cell elongation) regulator/hormone, used in tissue culture = indoleacetic acid (IAA). (JA)
AVERAGE: See MEAN.
AVES : (Latin: 'birds') Aves is the zoological class which comprises the birds. (See BIRDS, ORNITHOLOGY) (MP)
AVESTA: Most sacred text of the Zoroastrians (See ZORASTRIANISM). The earlier part of the Avesta, known as the Gathas, is a collection of short hymns. (AG)
AVIAN : Describing bird characteristics and bird life, an avian feature may also refer to a resemblance or relationship with the attributes of birds. (See AVES) (MP)
AVICENNA : See IBN SINNA.
AWACS : Acronym for 'Airborne Warning and Control System', AWACS perform an important defense function against missile and other military attacks. (See MISSILE DEFENCE) (MP)
AWOL : Military acronym for 'Absent Without Leave', although not necessarily implying intentions of desertion. (MP)
AXIODRAMA : (Greek: axioma 'hold worthy'). A method of exploring issues of ethics, cosmic relationships or values where the protagonist can review his or her relationship with God, Satan, a guiding spirit, death and so on. (See PSYCHODRAMA; ROLE PLAYING; ROLE REVERSAL). (IP)

AXIOM: An assumption or statement assumed true for the purposes of further analysis or deduction. (See ASSUMPTION) (MP)

AXON : Each nerve cell has only one axon carrying nerve impulses away from the cell. They are usually longer than the dendrites, sometimes about 100 cm long. (See DENDRITES, NEURON). (IP)
AYURVEDA: (lit. "knowledge of life")- A traditional Indian system of medicine and holistic healing. This system is based on the idea of balance of the elements and energies in the body, and recognises the unique constitutional aspects of each individual. The constitutional differences between individuals are expressed in the three dosas, and their combinations (see TRIDOSA). The traditional texts of Ayurveda are written in the Sanskrit language. (AG)
AYURVEDIC MEDICINE: Is said to be the oldest medical system on which many other oriental medical systems are based. It is practiced predominantly in India and encompasses several therapeutic modalities (e.g. herbs, massage, diet, yoga and meditation) which aim to redress homeostatic imbalances in the 3 doshas or primary life forces. An emphasis is placed on balancing the physical, spiritual and mental aspects of a person (See AYURVEDA) (JW).

BACON ROGER (1214-1294) is credited with being the founder of experimental science (see SCIENTIFIC METHOD)
BACTERIA: (Greek: bakterion 'small stick') Bacteria (singular: bacterium ) are small (between 1 and 10 microns) single-celled microorganisms whose genetic material is not enclosed in a special nuclear membrane. For this reason, bacteria are called procaryotes, from the Greek meaning prenucleus. Bacterial cells generally appear in one of several shapes; bacillus (rodlike), coccus (spherical or ovoid) spiral (corkscrew) or vibrios (comma-shaped) being the most common shapes. Individual bacteria may form pairs, chains, clusters, or other groupings and generally reproduce by a process called binary fission; that is, dividing into two equal daughter cells. For nutrition, most bacteria use organic chemicals, which in nature is derived from either dead or living organisms, however, some can manufacture their own food by photosynthesis and others from inorganic substances. Life on Earth as we know it would not exist if it were not for microorganisms because the microorganisms, bacteria mostly, play a key role in recycling essential nutrients when they decompose organic waste and dead plants and animals. Only a minority of all bacteria is pathogenic causing disease, while the vast majority benefit humans, other animals and plants (Greek bakterion meaning small stick) (see BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE; MICROBIAL ECOLOGY; MICROORGANISMS). (IP, JA, DM)
BACTERICIDAL : Killing of bacterial using sterilization methods (JA)
BACTERIOPHAGE: Modified bacteriophages, like the phage lambda, are used as vectors to clone genomic DNA from different sources (i.e., mammalian DNA) in their natural hosts ( E. Coli , also modified), and construct genomic libraries. (GK)
BACTERIOSTASIS : The inhibition of the growth and reproduction of bacteria without killing them. (JA)

BACULOVIRUS: A virus whose host is a bacterial cell; also called phage. As an insect virus it has a very large DNA (100-150 kb). Has been used to make DNA cloning vectors. It has been used as a viral insecticide and it is not pathogenic to vertebrates. (DM, JA)

BAHA'I : Religion established by Baha'ullah (Mirza Husayn-Ali Nuri) (1817-1892). This teaching places special emphasis on development of agriculture, the arts,sciences, and development of a universal language. (AG)
BALANCE : 1. A point of equilibrium between opposing forces; a stability, harmony, compromise or relational assessment, as in the 'balance of power' or 'balance of nature'. A balance must be maintained between ethics and technology, between ecology and economy, and between health and the pursuit of happiness. (See EQUILIBRIUM, MIDDLE PATH, BALANCE OF POWER, BALANCE OF NATURE) 2. One of the biological functions of the ear, balance is the maintenance of effective posture and locomotion with reference to an animal's weight distribution and gravity. (See HEARING) (MP)
BALANCE OF NATURE : The fluctuating equilibrium of natural ecological systems, in which proportions of different species are kept in balance by competition, adaptation, predator/prey relationships and symbiosis. It refers to natural ecosystems, communities and the biosphere in general where populations of all appear to be held roughly in equilibrium, and that disturbance of this harmony between organisms and the physical environment will have inevitable and generally unfavorable consequences for humankind. The phrase emphasizes the natural state as being one of balance which should be considered a critical bioethical concept (see also density-dependence). (See BALANCE, EQUILIBRIUM, NATURAL SELECTION, SYMBIOSIS, Density-Dependence ) (MP+IP)
BALANCE OF POWER : The distribution of might and influence between nations or other competitive entities such that one cannot completely dominate the interests of the other. (See ARMS RACE) (MP)

BALANCING FEEDBACK: See FEEDBACK.
BALLISTICS: Science of the motion of projectiles such as bullets and missiles, and more broadly also weapon physics such as explosive power (contained in the bullet not the gun), firing cap, firing pin, chamber, cartridge, shell, automatic/semi-automatic, trajectory, impact pattern etc. (See MISSILES, EXPLOSIVES) (MP)

BAR CHART : A graph consisting of bars whose lengths are proportional to quantities in a set of data; for example, a bar chart may illustrate how one variable such as height correspondingly increases with another linked biological variable such as concentration of a particular hormone. (See GRAPH, HISTOGRAM). (IP)
BASE PAIR: Two nucleotides (adenosine and thymidine, or guanosine and cytidine) held together by the bonds between individual bases. (DM+GK)
BASEL CONVENTION : Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989). (MP)
BASELINE MONITORING: An environmental or community study which provides baseline information on its condition at a point in time, for example a biodiversity inventory, against which future changes or developmental impacts can be measured. (See MONITORING, SCOPING) (MP)
BASQUE: Ethnic group in Europe, concentrated mainly in the Pyrenees. There are several million Basque in Europe, and a smaller population elsewhere, including in the United States. Their language is unrelated to any other European language, and it is even difficult to link their language with any outside of Europe. In their own language, the Basques refer to themselves as Euskadi. Famous Basques include St. Ignatius of Loyola, St. Francis Xavier, and the sculptor Eduardo Chillida. (AG)
BATES, WILLIAM H. (1860-1931) American ophthalmologist. In 1919 he published a book called "Better Eyesight without Glasses", which has been reprinted many times. He has been much maligned by ophthalmologists, although it is difficult to find any scientific refutation of his doctrines in the medical literature. He has also been misrepresented by commercializers who pretend to teach the "Bates Method", but then teach eye exercises unrelated to the advice given in Bates' own book. Bates believed that vision problems are not a disease of the eye but a disease of the mind. The ability to see clearly is a function of the ability to imagine clearly. And -- since tension is an obstacle to good vision -- the first step is to stop caring so much whether you see clearly or not, and just relax. This latter advice resembles an attitude cultivated by Zen archers and other Japanese martial artists, although Bates did not mention these disciplines in his book. Anecdotally, some people report high success with Bates' method and others report that they cannot understand what he is trying to say. No controlled clinical trial has been reported to date. (FL)
BATTERY FARMING Form of FACTORY FARMING (q.v.) in which poultry (usually chickens) are kept in confinement at very high population densities for the production of eggs or meat. (MR)

BAYESIAN ANALYSIS: Problem analysis for decision-making in which semi-subjective probabilities are assigned to uncertainties so that they can be analyzed as risk and refined with experience. (See RISK ANALYSIS, UNCERTAINTY) (MP)

BCG VACCINE : Bacillus Calmette-Guerin Vaccine, an attenuated strain of Mycobacaterium bovis used to immunize against tuberculosis. (JA)
BEAUVOIR, SIMONE DE : (1908-1986). French writer, feminist, philosopher, leader of the post-war existentialist movement and early exponent of women's rights. In the 1940s de Beauvoir with Sartre formulated the principles of a modern existentialist philosophy that stressed the importance of personal experience in a largely meaningless world. According to these principles, people need to create their own ethical values and be responsible for their own actions. Many of her novels reflect this view - most notably 'The Blood of Others' 1948; 'All Men are Mortal' 1955; 'The Woman Destroyed' 1968. A long commitment to improving the status of women gave rise in 1949 to her immeasurably popular and controversial book 'The Second Sex' . ' The Second Sex' traces women's oppression by male-dominated society and effectively argues that women's inferior social position does not reflect biology but systematic political subjugation. Simone de Beauvoir's 'ovarian' work had a profound influence on the Women's Liberation Movement of the 1960s and influenced later feminist writers. (See DWORKIN, ANDREA, GREER, GERMAINE). (IP)
BECQUEREL ANTOINE, HENRI : See CURIE, PIERRE.
BEFORE/AFTER CONTROL/IMPACT METHODS: See ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT.
BEGINNING OF LIFE : The time at which human individuality or personhood is considered to begin. In biological discussions it is also used to refer to the first living organisms to appear on the planet Earth (See EVOLUTION). (DM)
BEHAVIOR : (Middle English behaven "to hold oneself in a certain way"). 1. the activity or pattern of activities of a particular organism 2. the actions, reactions and activities of individuals under specific circumstances. Behavior is the outward expression of a complex interweaving of psychological, biological and social factors determined by each individual’s pattern of feelings and emotions. Healthy individuals with an inner sense of wellbeing are generally able to function adaptivein flexibility according to the needs of the situation in order to balance behavior for self-expression with responsibilities toirth as they represent the continuum of genetically determined and learned characteristics. Typically, every person has a fairlynt mix of tending to be anxious, compulsive, depressed, passive, dependent, withdrawn and so on. Under stress, these particular individual’s usual traits. (See BEHAVIORAL CONTROL, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE). (IP)
BEHAVIOUR CONTROL : Manipulation of the actions of a person or group by biomedical, psychological, or social means. (DM)
BEHAVIOR DISORDERS : See MENTAL DISORDERS.
BEHAVIOURAL ECOLOGY : the branch of evolutionary ecology concerned with tracing the link between ecological factors and adaptive behavior in animals (see HUMAN BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY). (IP)
BEHAVIORAL GENETICS : The study of the effects of heredity on human behavior. (DM)
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE : The science concerned with the actions or activities of any individual or species as matters of biological or psychological study. (See BEHAVIOR). (IP)

BEHAVIOUROME : A project proposed in 2002 by Darryl Macer to map the totality of ideas human beings can have,  relating to moral decision making. This includes to compare  the similarities and differences between individuals and cultures. After seeing patterns in cultural diversity, from those patterns a classification system for human ideas will emerge. In the end, we could understand the mind in the way that we are beginning to understand the body. See home pager and yahoo groups, http://eubios.info/menmap.htm  (DM)

BELIEF: Agreement with a given world view. E.g. Belief in the existence of God. (JA)

BELL CURVE: The title of a controversial book that claimed race was linked to IQ; Herrenstein, Richard J. and Murray, Charles . The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life, The Free Press 1994, 845 pp. (See NORMAL DISTRIBUTION) (DM)

BENEFICENCE: The state of doing or producing good, compare to nonmaleficence. 1. in ethical theory doing and loving good, active kindness deed or work for others, bioethics = loving good 2. in science the obligation to maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harms, reflecting on social and cultural implications [Latin " beneficum" meaning to gain prosperously as in benefit or blessing especially from God as in benediction] (IP+DM)
BENEVOLENCE: (Latin: bene volentem 'well wish') The desire that others should be free from suffering and pain. 1. desire to do good 2. theological virtuous disposition charitable, cultural differences in emphasis on moral importance of an action and the virtue from which it is undertaken - family emphasis on benevolence, amongst strangers act with beneficence. (JA+IP)
BENEVOLENT DICTATORSHIP: See BENEVOLENCE, DICTATORSHIP, POWER.
BENTHAM, JEREMY: (1748-1832) One of the founders of the Utilitarian movement in philosophical ethics. He tried to put ethics on a scientific foundation by interpreting good and pleasure, and evil as pain, and by proposing as calculus of pleasures and pains which would give a scientific measure of the rightness or wrongness of the action. Although a seminal thinker, his follower, John Stuart Mill (q.v.) is probably better known today. (FL)

BENTHOS: 1. Benthos is the bed or bottom of a body of water, including the layers of mud, silt or sand. 2. Benthos (or benthon; benthic organisms) are the animals and plants which live on the seabed or lake bottom. (See ESTUARY, SEAGRASS) (MP)

BEQUEST VALUE: Placing value on the existence of nature and resources, including willingness to pay for their preservation for the potential future benefit to one’s descendents. Bequest value is concerned with providing fair intergenerational access to nature’s useful potential and life support systems. (See INTRINSIC VALUE OF NATURE, INSTRUMENTAL VALUE OF NATURE, EXISTENCE VALUE, OPTION VALUE, USE VALUE, ENVIRONMENTAL VALUATION) (MP)
BERKELEY, GEORGE : ( 1685-1753) Irish Bishop and philosopher. Berkeley, California, is named for him because of his prophetic poem about the course of British Empire moving westward.. He argued that matter doesn't exist. What we call material objects are really collections of sense perceptions -- colours, sounds, smells, tastes and tactile sensations -- which he called "ideas", and which he believed exist only in the mind. He was therefore the father both of radical Empiricism and of the Logical Positivist school in philosophy of science. He believed that we get our sense experiences directly from God, who needs no such intermediaries as material objects, and who gives us experiences not to teach us about a material world but to teach us moral lessons. (FL)

BEST AVAILABLE INFORMATION: Information required for best decision-making and problem solving includes the following: meta-analysis; assessment of context and content; a variety of data, information, models and assumptions; combination of experimental, theoretical and philosophical resources; study of appropriate systems, processes, flows, component dynamics, emergent properties, uncertainties; understands human needs and motivations; uses integrated, strategic, precautionary and adaptive management; based on the principles of sustainability and bioethics; ecological, economic, social and cultural considerations; appropriate selection of indicators; evidence based management; environmental monitoring; adherence to the principles of science, logic and ethics. (See BEST CURRENT PRACTICE, NEWLY EMERGED PROBLEM, META-KNOWLEDGE, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT, INDICATOR, PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE, UNCERTAINTY) (MP)
BEST CURRENT PRACTICE: Awareness of the status of knowledge and technological change across the world in relation to advancements in environmental management or medical technology. Note that best current practice is often not most current practice. (See BEST AVAILABLE INFORMATION, STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT, INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT, SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT) (MP)

BHAGAVAD-GITA The Gita is one of the principal scriptures of Hinduism, the oldest of the great, formal religions of the world. It has a deep philosophical structure projecting the essence of the Vedas, the cornerstones of Hindu orthodox tradition, interlaced in the dramatic background of the ancient great battle, the Mahabharata. While the latter is composed by the sage-author Vedvyasa, the origin of the Gita is attributed to Krishna, a major player in the Mahabharata, and believed to be one of the few great avatars (incarnations) of the Supreme Lord, now regarded as Vishnu, the Creator among the Hindu trinity of Brhama, Vishnu and Mahesh.
On the battlefield of Kurukshetra, where the Great War of Mahabharata was about to commence, Arjuna, the great archer Prince of the Pandav dynasty facing the armies of the related clan of Kauravas, was overwhelmed by the piquancy of having to do battle unto death with his own kin. He voiced his feelings of utter confusion and dejection by seeking to lay down arms rather than destroy his own flesh and blood for the sake of worldly wealth in the form of the Kingdom of Hastinapur for his Pandava clan. Krishna, the renowned warrior strategist with manifest divine origins and nature, had sworn not to take to arms or sides with either of the two feuding clans since both were his friends and relatives. He had therefore offered to both either his powerful army, or only himself, unarmed. The Kauravas had chosen his army, and the Pandavas chose him alone. Krishna offered to be the charioteer of Arjuna, his friend and the prime archer among the Pandava brothers. Thus, seeing Arjuna falter on the eve of the great battle, Krishna gave him the message of Gita, which has since become not only Hinduism's but one of Humanity's universal theological philosophy.
Krishna's message, or the teaching of the Gita , in the briefest nutshell, was based on the philosophy of Karma, or Action. According to the Gita, Man was enjoined to do his dutiful and right (moral) Karma, without seeking fruit in the form of rewards, but ascribing, or offering the latter, as indeed the Karma itself, to the Lord. Krishna also expounded the doctrine of Re-birth in which the soul passes through several incarnations. Thus, earthly relations such as father, mother, brother, uncle, wife, son etc are all essentially illusory and impermanent. Only the corporeal body dies. The soul does not. The soul is untouched by pain, joy or death. It remains unscathed , and passes through cycles of birth and rebirth till its good Karmas release it from these sagas of suffering and unite it with the Supreme. Thus, opined Krishna, the father of this birth may be the son in the next. Such relations are transient, as is Life. Only the soul is permanent, and its journey through time is governed by Karmas performed through the various Lives. Only Karma which is performed in the line of duty, is moral, and whose rewards are not sought but even if accruing are offered to the Lord is the one which is the noblest. After hearing the exposition of this new and great philosophy of the Gita, Arjuna took up arms and and the battle of Mahabharata was fought and won victory for the morally rightful Pandavas.
The Gita has also been called the Song Divine. It is written in Sanskrit in the form of shlokas, or poetic stanzas, and comprised of 18 chapters. It has been translated in all major languages of the world and has been the subject of inumerable commentaries. Many of its principal cornerstones, eg the idea of Karma, rebirth, the immutability of the soul etc have entered not only the parlance, but the spirit of the modern universal human psyche. (RNS)
BHOPAL : Bhopal is a city in the State of Madya Pradesh in central India. It is the site of an industrial tragedy, which killed about 2000 people and injured many others. In 1985, Union Carbide chemical industry met with an accident, which involved the leak of the poisonous gas methyl isocyanate (MIC). The victims who inhaled MIC were subjected to cyanide poisoning with necrosis of the cells in the respiratory tract. Many legal and ethical issues were raised, some of which were not settled. (JA)

BIAS: 1. Prejudice or discrimination. (See DISCRIMINATION, RACISM, AFFIRMATIVE ACTION) 2. Error which is directional, as opposed to noise, or random error. Accuracy is freedom from bias. (See ERROR, NOISE) (MP)

BIBLE: Christian scriptures containing the Jewish scriptures (see OLD TESTAMENT) and the NEW TESTAMENT (q.v.). There are some (fairly minor) differences between the various Christian Churches as to which documents are included within the canon of scripture. (See RELIGIOUS EDUCATION) (MR)
BICYCLE TRANSPORT: Safe and extensive bicycle transport networks are an essential component of a healthy city. Cycling is an addition rather than an alternative to car commuting. Advantages in cities include less traffic congestion, parking space and air pollution, and advantages to cyclists are equitability, convenience, exercise and enjoyment. In some cities there is a monthly "Critical Mass"; a cyclist demonstration and congregation on central city arteries to highlight the demand for cycle-ways and affirm cyclist road rights. Many Asian and other poorer countries have high proportions of cyclists on the roads, but models for bicycle-friendly cities may be found in certain European countries such as Holland, where safe cycle-ways and a culture of respect for cyclists are standard. (See SUSTAINABLE CITIES) (MP)

BIG BANG: Astrophysical theory about the origin of our universe. The Big Bang was the beginning of both time and space, a giant explosion around 14 billion years ago which expanded rapidly, cooled and coalesced into the universe of today. Some predictions from the theory have since had corresponding data from the distant universe, and the theory is believed by much of the science community. The total mass of the universe will have a bearing on whether the universe will continue expanding forever (the ‘heat death’ of the universe) or contract back again due to gravity (the ‘Big Crunch’). (See BLACK HOLE, OMEGA POINT THEORY, PARALLEL UNIVERSES THEORY, COBE) (MP)

BIG BROTHER: See INTERNET PRIVACY.
BIG PICTURE: See INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT, HOLISTIC THINKING, GENERALIZATIONS.
BIGOTRY: Conduct or mental state of one who holds disreputable view(s). Nowadays, for example, a racist would be said to be bigoted. (MR)
BILIRUBIN : Natural breakdown product of hemoglobin occurring in reticuloendothelial system High level (2 to 2.5 mg per ml) results in jaundice.

BING FA: See SUN TZU.

BIOACCUMULATION : See BIOMAGNIFICATION.
BIOCENTRIC: Central prime mover is a consideration of equality to all forms of life. It considers the view from the individual organism, and may ascribe equal rights to all forms of life, E.g. Vedic Indians considered plants as divine (see ANTHROPOCENTRIC). (JA+IP)
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) : An indicator of the consumption of dissolved oxygen (DO) by biological processes and organisms in a water body or sample. BOD is the equivalent oxygen gas concentration chemically required to biologically oxidize the reducing agents in the water sample; if DO is low, then BOD is likely to be high. (See DISSOLVED OXYGEN) (MP)
BIOCHEMICAL WASTE TREATMENT FACILITY A facility wherein treatment of disposal of biomedical waste or processes incidental to such treatment/disposal is carried out. (JA)
BIOCHEMISTRY: The science of the chemistry of living organisms and their life processes (see BIOTECH AND BIOTECHNOLOGY). (IP)
BIOCOENOSIS: Bios (life), coenosis (seamless union), living together without a dividing wall in between organisms, used frequently in Russian literature, means a community. (JA)

BIOCONVERSION : BIOS = life,  It is a method in biotechnology. Transformation of chemical products into its raw materials or into another form by biological organisms like converting hydrocarbons to alcohols also called biological transformation or microbial transformation (since microbes are used). Extensively used in organic chemistry for carrying out complex synthesis.  e.g. fermentation of sugar into alcohol by microbes.  The soil bacterium Pseudomonas can break down organic compounds and has been used in industrial applications. Organic waste can be converted to the biogas methane when fermented under anaerobic conditions. Methane can be used to produce light and in cooking. (JA)

BIODIVERSITY: see Biological diversity - indicates the total number of living species found in the biosphere including variations found in form and function in the entire biological systems. Three types of biodiversity- genetic (molecular), biological (organismal) and habitat (ecological), the word first appeared in biological literature in 1986, given preeminent importance during the Convention on Biodiversity held in Rio in 1992. Biodiversity is an index of the biological wealth of this planet (see CONVENTION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY) (JA+GK+IP)
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT : A region of very high endemism where threats to habitat integrity or of extinction are also high. As human activities are drastically accelerating extinction worldwide and only limited resources are available to conserve many endangered organisms, this concept was proposed to focus effort and funding on areas where there might be the best possible conservation results. Conservation International (http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/home) leads efforts to mobilize international public and private resources to support conservation of biodiversity hotspots with involvement of local communities. (RW)

BIOENGINEERING: The study of the relationship between living organisms and machinery; for example, the industrial application of the results of biologic research in the field of recombinant DNA technology which permits the production of synthetic hormones, enzymes, therapeutics etc. (See BIOPHYSICS; BIOTECH; BIOTECHNOLOGY; GENETIC ENGINEERING). (IP)

BIOETHICAL MATURITY: Term coined by Darryl Macer in 1994. A mature society is one which has developed some of the social and behavioural tools to balance bioethical principles, and apply them to new situation s raised by technology. We could call the bioethical maturity of a society the ability to balance the benefits and risks of applications of biological or medical  technology.  It is also reflected in the extent to which the public views are incorporated into policy-making while respecting the duties of society to ensure individual's informed choice.   Awareness of concerns and risks should be maintained, and debated, for it may lessen the possibility of misuse of these technologies.  Other important ideals of bioethics such as autonomy and justice need to be protected and included in the benefit/risk balancing which is important for the ethical application of biotechnology in medicine.  Concern about technology should be valued as discretion that is basic to increasing the bioethical maturity of a society, rather than being fear ed as a barrier to the implementation of new technology.  (DM)
BIOETHICS 1. the study of life ethics. A word coined in the later part of the 20 ^th century to describe the various rights and wrongs of new scientific and technological procedures and discoveries (in particular in response to human experimentation during World War II) which were seen to bear a direct and significant impact upon humane survival". 2. Rules of conduct in scientific research and involves many disciplines and skills such as law, philosophy, theology medicine, science and technological research [derived from Greek bio - life and ethicos moral]. 3. Love of Life. (see BIOSCIENCE ETHICS). (IP+DM)
BIOETHICS COMMITTEES: Groups of people set up to adjudicate about bioethical matters. In an increasing number of countries such committees are established in law and are charged with certain legal responsibilities, typically about the conduct of research or clinical practice at either local or national level. (MR)
BIOETHICS INFORMATION DIRECTORIES: Bioethics is a subject which covers an encompassing range of issues and information. Organizations and internet directories which increase the accessibility and dissemination of bioethics information include Eubios Ethics Institute, Kennedy Institute of Ethics, Bioethicsline, Bioethics Net, International Association of Bioethics, International Society for Environmental Ethics, and Institute for Global Ethics. (See MEDICAL INFORMATION DIRECTORIES, ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION DIRECTORIES) (MP)

BIOGAS : is a non conventional energy, methane as a natural gas is an example. When organic waste is fermented using methanogenic bacteria, methane is produced also called the marsh gas.  Biogas is an alternate source of energy, can be used in domestic applications such as lighting a house. (JA)

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE: Refers to the reciprocal interactions between living organisms and their elemental bio-cycles. Earth is essentially a closed system with respect to carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur the elements organisms need in large quantities; thus, these elements cycle from the environment through organisms back to the environment in sustainable harmony. There are two major types of biogeochemical cycles - gaseous and sedimentary, where each element has its distinct cycle with the specifics depending on its physical and chemical properties and how it is utilized by organisms (see CARBON CYCLE; NITROGEN CYCLE; HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE). (JA+IP)
BIOGEOCHEMISTRY : The study of fluxes and transformations of the materials that constitute the Earth, including the Earth's interior, surface, oceans, and atmosphere. (RW)
BIOGEOCOENOSIS: A seemless partnership between living organisms and their physical environment. Frequently used in Russian literature, equivalent to the word "ecosystem". (JA)
BIOGEOGRAPHY: The branch of biology which studies the geographical range and distribution of animals and plants across the earth. Of particular importance to ecological sustainability is the distribution and abundance of keystone, endangered and exotic pest species. (MP)
BIOHAZARD: A health hazard from a biological organism or substance. (See BIOSAFETY). (DM)
BIOINFORMATICS: The acquisition, management, analysis, storing and processing of biological information; such as, gene sequences, genomics, biological structures, pharmaceutical chemicals, taxonomy, biodiversity and environment. Biomolecules such as DNA and proteins have large amounts of information of biological interest. DNA is called the blue print of life and proteins are the building blocks of life. Developed out of a combination of computer science, information technology and genetics to determine and analyze genetic/biological information, and these technologies can be now used as a scientific basis on which ethical decisions can be made. Origin - the first bioinformatic databases were constructed a few years after the first protein sequences began to become available. The first protein sequence reported was that of bovine insulin in 1956, consisting of 51 residues. Nearly a decade later, the first nuclei acid sequence was reported, that of yeast alanine tRNA with 77 bases. Soon thereafter Dayhoff gathered all the available sequence data to create the first bioinformatic database . Organizations in biomolecular databases have two goals: (i) to get valuable and practical information out of these databases (ii) to integrate information from diverse sources. DNA databases are stored in GenBank Company in USA and also in the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Germany.  Similar protein sequence databases are also available. (See INFORMATICS, GENBANK) (IP, JA)

BIOLISTICS : A useful method to transport DNA into any organ, cell using a Particle gun/biolistic gun. Can also transfer DNA into animal tissues, plant cells and fungal as well as into mitochondria . (JA)

BIOLISTIC GUN : See PARTICLE GUN.
BIOLOGICALS  Any preparation made from organism or microorganism or their product metabolism/biochemical reactions intended for use in the diagnosis/immunization or in the treatment of human beings or animals in research activities. (JA)
BIOLOGICAL: Any event/processes relating to life/organisms. (JA)
BIOLOGICAL CONTAINMENT
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL is a method of controlling pest species by introducing one of their natural predators or otherwise interfering with their life cycle; for example, the Mediterranean fruit fly has been successfully controlled by the method known as "sterile male technique" where unproductive adult flies are released into their habitat after the pupae were sterilized by exposure to gamma radiation. This method has distinct advantages over the use of toxic, non-biodegradable chemicals. (IP)
BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM theory that human action or behavior (aggression, sexual orientation, sex roles, intelligence and so on) are not free but set by genetics. The theory always becomes popular at times of political austerity where whole populations are encouraged to believe that their social prejudices are scientifically based (see DETERMINISM). (IP)
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY See BIODIVERSITY.
BIOLOGICAL SCALES: Fields of biology and units of biodiversity organized by increasing scale and complexity are as follows: carbon chemistry leads into biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, cellular biology, physiology, organism biology, behavioral studies, community biology, ecology, environmental biology, human ecology, evolutionary biology, Gaia hypothesis, artificial life, psychology, consciousness and further into biological philosophy and bioethics. (See BIOLOGY, BIODIVERSITY, BIOETHICS). (MP)
BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS: see BIOSYSTEMS.
BIOLOGICAL TISSUES BANKS: BLOOD BANK, DNA BANK, CELL BANK, ORGAN DONOR BANK. Refers to a collection of samples gathered from free donors, whose purpose is to serve as tissue (blood) or organ donor center to save sick peoples" lives (blood transfusions or organ transplantation). DNA and cell banks are meant to provide samples for research purposes, either in genetic, physiology, biochemistry or other experimental protocols. Neither of these tissue banks have commercial interests. In the case some money is charged, it is to compensate the costs of maintaining, culturing and dispatching the samples. (See also REPOSITORY.) (GK)
BIOLOGICAL WARFARE: Waging war by the deployment of biological weapons; that is, the deliberate release of natural or genetically engineered disease causing organisms, or their products, into enemy territory. The threat of biological warfare has not decreased since the signing of the 1972 worldwide treaty on Biological and Toxic Weapons which in theory prohibits their development and deployment. On the contrary, the danger of institutionalized terrorism has become more real with the alleged stockpiling of many agent of germ warfare (see BIOWEAPON, INSTITUTION OF WAR & VIRTUAL WARFARE, ETHNIC CLEANSING). (IP+GK)
BIOLOGY: Bios (life), logy (study). The science of life. Includes the study of zoology and botany. The term appeared in a book title during 1802 by a German physican , Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus, the title of the book being, "Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur fur Naturforscher und Aerzte (Biology, or philosophy of the living Nature for Scientists and Physicians" Source - j.frings@hccnet.nl (JA)
BIOLUMINESCENCE AND BIOELECTRICITY the production of light or electric discharges by living organisms. The mechanism has evolved independently in many kinds of organisms from bacteria to vertebrates; for example fireflies who produce flashes of light used to attract mates, the electric eel who can generate up to 550 volts which it uses for offense and defense, fishes who use electric organs and electroreceptors for navigation purposes and a variety of deep-sea creatures who are luminescent by means of either light-producing body cells or by specialized organs containing luminous bacteria. Now we can also include human engineered chimeras, like the tobacco plant which produces a dazzling light when watered with an appropriate substrate due to the inclusion into its genome the luminescent firefly gene. (IP)
BIOMAGNIFICATION : The increase in toxicity of chemically stable synthetic human-made compounds which resist the natural detoxifying processes of excretion and decay, so the poison accumulates exponentially in the animal body as it progress up the food chain (see Food Web) and, through the process of magnification, the concentrations of any single pollutant can be millions of times greater in the body of a top predator (carnivores like the eagle, tiger or human) compared with the surrounding environment. For example, the biomagnification of PCBs in fish can be concentrated to reach an accumulation factor exceeding 250,000 times that in the water (see FOOD WEB, POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS, ENDOCRINE DISRUPTERS & DDT). (IP)
BIOMASS: The total biological mass, quantity of living matter, or dry weight of a particular species, within a habitat or geographical area. Since species differ in size, the use of the mass rather than the number of organisms per unit of area helps to indicate the importance of a population in relation to productivity and the flow of energy and nutrients through an ecosystem. The global biomass consists of all of the organisms in the world. (See BIODIVERSITY). (MP)
BIOMASS ENERGY: Biomass energy is fuel stored in organic matter such as plants or animals and their waste products. Much of the population in developing nations rely on biomass for fuel, especially from wood. Although a renewable resource, improperly managed use of fuelwood is having adverse impacts on habitats and biodiversity. The burning of dung indoors for heating or cooking has also been implicated in respiratory health problems. (See BIOMASS, RENEWABLE ENERGY) (MP)
BIOME: (Greek: bio "life" + oma "tumor" or "mass"). A major ecological community or category of habitat, and having a characteristic ecology, climate or geographical region. (MP)
BIOMEDICAL ETHICS: Domain of ethics (moral philosophy) concerned with such medical matters as ABORTION (q.v.), CLINICAL TRIALS (q.v.) and EUTHANASIA (q.v.). (MR)
BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH: Biomedical research is usually thought of as highly scientific laboratory or clinical research. But vast numbers of the world's population, maybe the majority, have no access to medicine at all. They have little chance to benefit from the results of high-tech medical research. So research into methods to teach healthy behavior to medically deprived populations should be thought of as a central part of biomedical research. This research would include strategies for encouraging avoidance of sexually transmitted diseases (as through condom use), healthy and sanitary childbirth, simple methods of environmental health, like digging a pit for nightsoil so that children won't wander in it barefoot and become invested with parasites, simple nutritional advice, etc. Researchers should seriously study whether low-tech biomedical research of this sort might save many more lives than the high-tech sort. (FL)
BIOMEDICAL WASTE : Atretions/secretions, contaminated with blood. (JA)
BIOMETRICS: 1. Also known as biometry, biometrics is the application of statistics to biological data. 2. The use of distinctive biological characteristics for the recognition and positive identification of an individual. The most familiar biometric tag is the fingerprint, but the technology is fast advancing examples include iris pattern scanning, electronic voice verification, DNA fingerprinting and face recognition in security cameras. (See BIG BROTHER) (MP)
BIOMIMETICS: Engineering which mimics designs from nature to produce new functional or technological innovations. (MP)
BIONICS: The science of combining electronic principles, prosthetic technology and computer science to rehabilitate and restore function; such as artificial pacemakers used to correct abnormal heart rhythms, cochlear implants to reduce deafness by direct stimulation of the auditory nerve, and implantable retinal microchips to improve vision. (See CYBORG, CYBERNETICS, LIFE EXTENSION, DISABILITY) (MP & IP)
BIOPHILIA: (Greek: bios 'life' + philos 'beloved') Word coined by E.O Wilson to describe the emotional affiliation of human beings for other living things, the innate tendency to focus on life and life-like processes . (DM)

BIOPHYSICS: The science of the application of the laws of physics to life processes. (See PHYSICS; BIOENGINEERING; BIOTECH; BIOTECHNOLOGY). (IP)  

BIOPIRACY 1. The use of nature or traditional knowledge and/or medicines for modern use without consent and/or acknowledgment of their origins 2. theft of biological knowledge for profit. Origin - the first patent was granted to General Electric Company in 1971 for what the "inventor" - Anand Mohan Chakravarty - described as " I simply shuffled genes, changing bacteria that already existed ." This stimulated a rush by US corporations to understand, and ultimately, to patent and claim ownership of existent and modified life forms. From this behavior the term "biopiracy" was coined (see web site at http://www.cqs.com/biopiracy.htm). (IP)
BIOPROSPECTING : Investigative collection of living organisms with the aim of uncovering potentially useful applications, for example biomimetic design features, unique genetic information, food and crop varieties, indigenous medicines, and especially with reference to the potential presence of pharmaceutically-active alkaloids. Conservationists and developers today find agreement over the value of biodiversity protection, at least on practical if not ideological grounds. Less than 1 or 2% of Earth's organisms have been examined - the investigation and conservation of global biodiversity remaining one of the last great unexplored and undervalued realms of scientific discovery. (See BIOINFORMATICS, BIOMIMETICS, BIORESOURCES, BIOPIRACY, BIODIVERSITY) (MP)
BIOPSY: The surgical removal of a cell or sample of tissue for diagnostic purposes. (DM)
BIOREGION: An integrated and continuous natural area which contains an interconnected biophysical system, for example a river catchment, mountain range or other discrete ecosystem. (See BIOREGIONALISM) (MP)
BIOREGIONALISM: The defining and management of regions according to their biophysical and ecological characteristics, without restriction by political borders or other arbitrary human boundaries. This recognizes the integrity and continuity of large biological systems such as habitats and ecosystems, and is the appropriate large-scale unit for integrated management and monitoring of environmental impacts and change. (See BIOREGION, INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT) (MP)

BIOREMEDIATION: Cleaning the environment of pollution and waste materials of human origin using the ability of microorganisms to break down complex organic and inorganic compounds. The organic decontamination or resuscitation of ex-industrial sites and other desecrated lands can be achieved using biologically active plants, fungi and bacteria. These destroy or degrade pollutant chemicals into their basic components and remediate the soil creating a viable ecology or usable land quality. For example, keratinophilic fungi can break down the keratins of hair, nails and feathers efficiently into basic biochemicals which can be reused. Bioremediation technologies include composting, land-farming organisms on site, bioreactor organisms cultured offsite, soil-bank air and water networks, ecological and biochemical techniques. Research includes enzymic incorporation of pesticide residues, and desalination of soils by plant biomass. Alternative chemical and physical remediation processes may also serve to transfer rather than to degrade many pollutants. (See BIOREACTOR, DECOMPOSITION, BIODEGRADABLE, RESTORATION ECOLOGY) (MP & JA)

BIORESOURCES Genetic resources, organisms or part thereof, populations or any other biotic component of the ecosystem with actual or potential use or value for humanity (Latin resurgere rise again). (IP)
BIOSAFETY: C oncept dealing with the insertion of foreign genes in a species to yield a transgenic species and releasing it into the wild, may endanger the health food chain and diversity of ecosystems, ecobalance and human consumption. Implementation of international safeguards, Controlling agency like Food and Drug Administrative Office (US). (JA)
BIOSCIENCE ETHICS: Acts as the interface between science and bioethics - science is descriptive and ethically neutral as it deals with facts requiring verification, whereas ethics is prescriptive dealing with what ought to be and depends on intellectual justification; however, if the bioethical discussion is to be relevant to our knowledge-based lives, there is the expectation of high biological standards in agreement with modern scientific insights. Bioscience ethics resides in between scientific endeavor and its application into acceptable forms of bioethical consensus with its major elements being increased understanding of biological systems, responsible use of technology and curtailment of ethnocentric debates more in tune with new scientific insights. Irina Pollard and Steven Gilbert first used the term in 1997 (see Bioethics , SCIENTIFIC METHOD). (IP)
BIOSPHERE: It is a combination of two words - bios (life) and sphere (globe), meaning a globe that can sustain life, e.g. Earth. Largest self-sustaining and self-maintaining biological system. Biosphere = Ecosphere. refers to the regions of the Earth’s atmosphere and crust occupied by living matter (see Cryosphere, Hydrosphere & Exosphere) [Greek bios = life + sphaira = globe] (JA+IP)

BIOSPHERE 2 PROJECT: Biosphere 1 is Gaia, or the Earth. The Biosphere 2 Project was a closed-environment experiment in which 8 humans were enclosed for two years (1991-93) in a large artificial habitat in Arizona. The glass domes of Biosphere 2 contained 204,000 cubic meters including a mini-sea, mangroves, rainforest, desert and farm. Unexpected difficulties arose in the maintenance of the system over the two years, for example most vertebrate and insect species went extinct, including all plant pollinators. Most problematic was the biogeochemical regulation of water quality and the atmosphere, with oxygen in the end having to be added from the outside. Such mixed success maintaining a self-sufficient colony can only further impress the need for preservation of the intricate ecological life-support systems already provided by the Earth, but taken for granted. (See BIOSPHERE, ARTIFICIAL HABITAT) (MP)

BIOSYSTEMS: resultant of interaction between abiotic factors and biotic factors eg. Gene system, cell system, organ system, organismal systems, population systems and ecosystems (JA)
BIOTA : The combined living organisms of a given ecological habitat, biome or geographical region, comprising all of the plants, animals and microorganisms. The collection of all organisms living in a place. (See BIODIVERSITY, BIOMASS) (MP, RW)
BIOTECH: The shortened form of "biotechnology" which first appeared in the 1970s when it became possible to manipulate the genetic make-up of living organisms; for example, biotech companies can create plants and animals with new characteristics such as resistance to disease where the biotechnician is a person working in a biotech laboratory. Since the 1970s, the creation of modified life-forms have generated heated ethical and environmental controversy (see BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETIC ENGINEERING). (IP)
BIOTECHNOLOGY: The use or development of techniques using organisms (or parts of organisms) to provide or improve goods or services. It is the application of biological knowledge for the purpose of solving practical problems in healthcare, agriculture, veterinary science and related fields (see BIOTECH AND GENETIC ENGINEERING). (IP, DM, DR)

BIOTIC COMMUNITY : The community consisting of all of earth’s living organisms. The proposal for an extension of ethics to cover all the species of the living systems emerged in the 20 ^th century, particularly by means of Aldo Leopold’s “A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and There” (1949). (CP)

BIOWEAPON : A weaponry must have the killing power and is easy to manufacture and handle; to weaponise biological organisms as agents of mass destruction of human beings. Between a 100 Kg bomb and 100 Kg bacteria, the kill is greater in the later. It can kill from one to four million people depending upon the spread of bacterial. See Anthrax, smallpox. (JA)
BIPOLAR (MANIC) DEPRESSION: a spectrum disorder where the sufferer can be in varying degrees manic (elation/excitement) or even-tempered, depressed (melancholia) or normal, or alternating between mania and depression. The condition can be severe, intermittent or chronic and can be primary or secondary. A primary depression is one where the particular mood disorder is the dominant problem, while in a secondary depression a number of psychological, physiological and/or social variables, for example, schizophrenia, drug abuse (alcoholism, marijuana, amphetamines, cocaine), extreme nutritional deficiencies and physical illness, may produce the symptoms. On the whole, bipolar patients are a much more homogeneous group compared to unipolar depressives as they experience, in varying degrees, alternating cycles of mania and depression. They are also more responsive to treatment with lithium salts than are those with recurrent attacks of depression only. If severe manic episodes escalate, the patient may lose contact with reality, hallucinate and, if coupled with paranoia, become openly psychotic (see DEPRESSION; UNIPOLAR DEPRESSION; BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS; LITHIUM; SEROTONIN RE-UPTAKE INHIBITORS). (IP)
BIRDS : Homeothermic (warm-blooded), feathered, egg-laying vertebrates of the class Aves. The forelimb of birds is in the form of a wing, though not all birds fly. According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red Book data from year 2000, about 12% of birds face a serious risk of extinction during the next 100 years. (RW)
BIRTH CONTROL: The prevention of birth. Birth control has been practiced by different contraceptive methods in almost all cultures and epochs. It has not been an exclusivity of females, since males have used different means to kill sperm cells before intercourse. Birth control policies in Latin America have been introduced with great effort since the sixties, first by private ONGs, then by national health services, but in many of these countries, the Catholic church has tirelessly been opposed to any method different from the rhythm method (Ogyno). As a result of educational campaigns and higher schooling, middle to upper classes in these countries have gained control over their reproductive choices, reducing the overall birthrate, but lower classes still have high numbers of children and do not use contraceptive methods. (GK)
BIRTH DEFECTS : hereditary birth defects are transmitted by the parent’s genes; however, many birth defects are the result of e the greater uncertainty about their predictability. (See TERATOLOGY; CONGENITAL MALFORMATION). (IP)
BIRTH RATE: Quantification of the potential rate of increase of a population due to the production (birth) of new individuals. Normally expressed as number of young produced per adult female per unit time. (MR)
BIT: (Binary + Digit) A bit is the smallest unit of information in mathematics or computer terminology, representing the presence or absence of a single feature (1 or 0; on or off). Eight bits comprise one byte. (See BYTE, QUBIT) (MP)
BLACK AND WHITE THINKING: See CONTINUUM, ADAPTIVE THINKING.

BLACK HOLE: Coined in 1969 by John Wheeler and further theorized by Stephen Hawking among others, a black hole is a point in the universe of immense gravity, often created by the collapse upon itself of a giant star some twenty times the size of our Sun or larger. A black hole is so dense that matter or light cannot escape once past the ‘event horizon’. The centre is postulated to be an infinitely dense point known as a ‘singularity’. Contrary alaxies. (See WORMHOLE, SINGULARITY, EVENT HORIZON, BIG BANG, PARALLEL UNIVERSES THEORY) (MP)

BLASTOCYST: A hollow ball of cells, filled with fluid, that forms about four days after fertilization from the zygote, and prior to the beginning of the process of implantation. The embryo develops from a small cluster of cells in the centre of the sphere, and the outer wall of the sphere becomes the placenta. (DM)
BLASTOMERES: The daughter cells that derive from the first and subsequent cleavages of the zygote. (DM)

BLIND EXPERIMENT: See DOUBLE BLIND EXPERIMENT

BLOOD BANKS: See TISSUE BANKS.
BOARD : An authority with office bearers and expert members possessing qualifications, knowledge and experience of scientific engineering or management aspects of a given subject for example, Pollution. The Board accordingly is the Pollution Control Board, which is empowered to give directions requiring control measures. (JA)

BOAT PEOPLE: A term often used to mean illegal immigrants arriving by boat, often in an attempt to escape brutality or impoverishment. In sympathy, perhaps it should be remembered that Europeans in Australasia and North America, and Chinese and Korean forefathers of Japanese in Japan, were originally boat people themselves. (MP, DM)

BODHISATTVA : Buddha-in-the-making, literally an "enlightenment being"- to keep free all beings from the coils of suffering. (JA)

BOMBS: See EXPLOSIVES.
BONE MARROW : soft, spongy tissue found in the center of large bones that is essential in the manufacture and maturation of blood cells (white cells, red cells and platelets). It is sensitive to the effects of radiation, anticancer drugs and toxic agents (e.g. benzene). Damage to the bone marrow can cause leukemia or suppressed immune system. (See CANCER; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNITY). (SG2)

BOOK OF ENOCH: The name of several unrelated books of the Apocrypha. Each of these books is ascribed to the Biblical figure Enoch, who has long been associated with visions, due to the cryptic note in Genesis 5,24 that he was no longer to be found because God "took him". No direct mention is made of Enoch's death, and so, a tradition developed that he ascended alive to Heaven. Each of the books called "Enoch" describes a collection of heavenly visions. The Ethiopian Book of Enoch in particular supplies much information on angelology, and supplies the names of a large number of angels. (AG)
BOOK OF MORMON: A central scripture of the Mormons. This book is actually a collection of many books, and serves as a "Third Testament" for the Mormons, in addition to the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Book of Mormon chronicles historical events and figures important to Mormon history starting from the 2nd Temple period in Judea, and continuing in North America of ancient times. According to Mormon tradition, this history was written on golden plates in a form of the Egyptian language and was hidden in ancient times in North America. In modern times, they were rediscovered by Joseph Smith, and with the assistance of the angel Moroni, Joseph Smith translated these records on the golden plates from Egyptian to English. The standard Book of Mormon is now printed in English. Two other books important to Mormons (although not as central as the Book of Mormon) are "Pearl of Great Price", and "Doctrines and Covenants". (AG)
BOOK OF THE DEAD: Tibetan Book of the Dead (In Tibetan, "Bardo thos grol chen mo", meaning "The Great Book of Natural Liberation Through Understanding in the Between". The popular title of the book in English, however, is "Book of the Dead"). A Tibetan Buddhist text written by Padma Sambhava in the 8th/9th century which explains the stages through which a person goes during the process of dying, and the process through which the person's soul is reborn into another body to begin a new life. The book is useful both to an individual who is dying, and to relatives and friends, because it explains both what process the dying person goes through and the prayers which are helpful in assisting the individual to be reborn in the next life. The book contains a day by day description of the stages the individual's soul goes through, and the beings it encounters leading up to rebirth. (AG)
BOOK OF THE DEAD: Egyptian Book of the Dead A collection of magical texts which were written on papyrus by the ancient Egyptians and placed upon their dead in order to assist the deceased with their journey through the netherworld, and to help them deal with the dangers of this journey, and ultimately help them attain the afterlife. The text was divided into spells, and was accompanied by pictures and illustrations which further explained the various aspects of the netherworld. The earliest such collection of papyri from the middle of the 15th century bce, but the traditions contained within them are a great deal more ancient. (AG)

BOOLEAN LOGIC: Named for the English mathematician George Boole, ‘Boolean Logic’ uses the logical relationships AND, OR and NOT, useful for symbolic representation in ‘Boolean algebra’ and computer programming. (See GAME THEORY, MODEL) (MP)

BOOMERANG: Australian Aboriginal returning and non-returning flat hardwood object used for hunting or ceremonial purposes. Nowadays the most popular model is shaped such that the projectile returns to its thrower. In areas of Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory it was also used as a musical instrument as well as a hunting tool. Term is also colloquially used to indicate 'the return to' or 'recoil upon' the originator of an idea, gift, promise etc like " a boomerang decision", " a boomerang cheque" and of particular importance a dishonored political promises made to the Aboriginal people like " boomeranged promises" (see CORROBOREE; RECONCILIATION). (IP)

BOREAL FOREST: See CONIFEROUS FOREST.

BOTANICAL GARDENS: is an example of ex situ conservation where endangered plants are grown under human care and protection. There are about 1,500 botanical gardens world wide, mostly found in industrialized countries. About 230 botanical gardens are found in topical developing countries, which are rich in plant diversity. (JA)
BOTANY: (Greek: botani "plant") The branch of biological science dealing with plant life, for example the classification, structure or ecology of plants, or the flora characteristics of a particular time or region. (MP)
BOTULISM: (Latin: botulus "sausage"). An often fatal form of food poisoning caused by the endotoxin produced by the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium botulinum . The toxin is ingested in contaminated food from improper sterilization during canning or preservation, but the live bacteria need not necessarily be present once the toxin has been released. Unlike other forms of food poisoning, symptoms occur from 18 hours up to one week post-ingestion, and include lassitude, fatigue, muscle weakness and visual disturbances. Nausea and vomiting occurs in less than 50% of cases. Two thirds of cases are fatal, usually as a result of delayed diagnosis and treatment. (See ENDOTOXIN, FOOD SAFETY) (MP & IP)
BOTULINUM TOXIN : A bacterial toxin of Clostridium botulinum , One gram of crystalline toxin can kill about one million people. (JA)
BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY (BSE) a fatal degenerative Prion brain disease of cattle characterized by clumsy, jerky movements, loss of balance and apprehensive behavior. The disease was first observed in cattle by veterinarians in 1983 with its outbreak in England being associated with other spongiform encephalopathies such as scrapie in sheep, from which it is hypothesized it crossed species through scrapie-infected bone and meal supplemented cattle feed. The subsequent outbreak of a new variant of Creuzfeldt-Jabob disease in humans during the 1980s was blamed on the consumption of BSE-infected beef, though there is no conclusive scientific proof of this transmission; however there is a major concern as bovine albumin has been routinely used in Assisted Reproductive Technology programs, organ culture media and blood products (see PRIONS & CREUTZFELDT-JAKOB DISEASE). (IP)

BOVINE SOMATOTROPIN (bST) : Somatotropin is a growth hormone found in all mammals, and in lactating cows (bovine) it increases milk production. In the early 1990s, bacterium E. Coli was genetically engineered to produce bST, which made its use economically practical in dairy farming. Bovine Somatotrophin hormone also know as Bovine Growth Hormone. However, the use of bST to increase commercial milk production continues to be controversial. The genetically engineered (GE)  hormone (rBST) was manufactured by a multinational company, the Monsanto as an agricultural product to improve the growth rate and protein and was approved for use in USA in 1993.  A few side effects in animal health concerns have been noticed in the treated cows which include increased risk of udder infection (mastitis) , lameness and a reduction in life span. (See GENETIC ENGINEERING). (SG2, JA)

BRAIN : The structure of the nervous system that provides the highest level of integration, control and regulation. It weighs about 1.5 kg in the adult (only about 2.5% of body weight) but receives 15% of the blood supply and 25% of the oxygen consumed by the body. The cells in the brain are far more individualized in structure and function than cells in any other part of the body. The brain can be divided up into a) cerebrum comprised of four lobes (frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital) where each lobe has special functions; b) cerebellum which helps the body to maintain balance by integrating several kinds of information such as vision, inner ear and impulses caused by the effect of gravity. Besides equilibrium the cerebellum affects muscular coordination and the autonomic execution of fine movements; c) the brain stem that connects the higher brain centers with the spinal cord and is the seat of the basic involuntary functions in the brain stem. The brain stem is divided up into several sections - the hypothalamus which regulates the hormones through the body by its secretions to the pituitary gland (growth, puberty, metabolism and reproduction) and the lowest part being the medulla whose cells control many autonomic and involuntary functions such as heart beat, breathing, intestinal activity and so on. (See BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS). (IP)
BRAIN DEATH : Defined as the entire, permanent, irreversible cessation of functions of the brain stem that is synonymous with brain-stem death, since the centers for the control of such essential body functions as consciousness, respiration and blood pressure are situated within the brain stem". It is significant that guidelines on live donor transplantation, Cadaver donor transplantation and the on recipients of transplantation are being considered (JA..+FL,IP)
BRAIN DEATH, BRAIN-STEM DEATH: After the first heart transplant in 1968, people began to raise questions about whether a heart can be transplanted without murdering the donor. For the procedure can be begun only if the heart has not died a natural death, ie only if it is still beating. But if the heart is beating then the patient seemed -- by traditional standards -- still to be alive. The problem was solved in many countries by defining "death' as the death of the brain. "Brain death" was then defined as brain-stem death, and clinical criteria were developed for determining brain-stem death.
Brain death is to be distinguished from other syndromes, like Persistant Vegetative State, Permanent Vegetative State, Locked-in Syndrome, Advanced Dementia, etc, where one may be unresponsive to stimuli while the brain is nonetheless alive. Indeed in the Persistant Vegetative State there are discernible periods of sleep and wakefulness, and there has been some success in restoring PVS patient to various degrees of conscious function, as has been reported in a number of papers by Keith Andrews in London.
In a classic paper, Robert Truog and James Fackler (Critical Care Medicine, (1992) 20: 1705-1712) brought considerable clinical evidence to show that patients who have satisfied then-current criteria for Brain Death retained, nonetheless, brain function in the forms of hypothalamic endocrine function; cerebral electric activity; some environmental responsiveness with clear hemodynamic response to surgical incision at the time of organ removal; and spinal cord function in the form of spinal reflexes.
In the light of these data, one might easily conclude that we are harvesting organs from people who are really alive. Such a conclusion can lead to either of two quite contradictory courses of action. On the one hand it can be concluded that if we are already taking organs from live people, then we may as well find even more fruitful sources of organs and take them from patients in the Persistant Vegetative State (a position close to that advocated in a later article by Truog: Is it time to abandon brain death? HCR (1997) 27:29-37), or even from severely demented or other seriously mentally ill patients. But on the other hand one might conclude exactly the opposite, ie that if heart and other major organ transplantation requires taking organs from live people, then this is murder and such transplantations ought to be stopped.
The dilemma is reflected in debates within ancient spiritual cultures, such as Israel and Japan. Since 1997, Japan has had a law allowing taking hearts from brain-dead patients, for transplantation. But there both lay and scientifically educated Japanese have been reluctant to donate, perhaps because of deep-rooted beliefs about the importance of heartbeat and blood to life. Important aspects of brain-death and transplantation in Japan are discussed by Dr Masahiro Morioka in his website: <http://www.lifestudiesnetwork.com/specialreport01.html>
As for Israel, the basic spiritual source, the Bible, is ambiguous. One verse says: "And the Lord, God formed the human of the dust of the earth, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the human became a living being". (Genesis: II,7) This has been used (together with a Mishna in Tractate Yoma) to argue that the ability to breathe is the basic criterion for human life. So since the controls for spontaneous breathing are in the brainstem, the death of the brainstem is death. But the Bible says in another place: "Only be sure not to eat the blood, for the blood is the life...." (Deuteronomy XII,23) So one can as easily argue that the circulation of blood is the basic criterion of life. So as long as the heart is beating and blood is circulating, one is alive.
Israeli law and the Chief Rabbinate (the major government-established religious authority) recognize brain death and both allow and encourage major organ donation. But a large number of other religous authorities in Israel refuse to accept heart transplantation. Their reasons are not simply a matter of religious faith, but based on scientific and clinical evidence of the kind cited in Truog's articles (cited above). But their conclusions from the evidence are of course the opposite of Truog's.
As for method's of determining brain death based on advanced imaging techniques, some rabbis argue that it is not necessary to use such procedures unless there is a doubt whether the patient is dead or alive. But if the patient should be alive (although dying) then subjecting the patient to these procedures is unnecessarily disturbing, and perhaps hastening the death, of a dying patient. (FL)
BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS: (Greek: neuron 'nerve' + Latin: transmittere 'to transmit') A substance produced in and released by one neuron, that diffuses across a synapse and excites or inhibits the postsynaptic neuron or neurones. There are four principal neurotransmitters in the brain; dopamine, noradrenaline (norepinephrine), serotonin and acetylcholine and together they balance physical health and the chemistry of mood. Dopamine and noradrenaline are both members of the catecholamine family because they are produced from tyrosine, an amino acid present in the normal diet. Serotonin, an indoleamine, is a close cousin and manufactured from another dietary amino acid called tryptophan. Dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin are collectively known as monoamines and, together with another monoamine acetylcholine, which is more involved in muscle movement and thinking than in mood, they are the key brain messengers maintaining the flow of information across the synaptic junctions of the limbic system. The limbic system has three major functions; maintenance of homeostasis, development of nurturance skills and monitoring emotion. When, for whatever reason, the balance of these neurotransmitters is disturbed, emotional regulation becomes unstable and in those individuals genetically vulnerable to bipolar disorder, for example, the syndromes of melancholia and mania may develop. In cases of severe mania, acute schizophrenia or psychosis, it is dopamine which dominates the pathways of limbic communication. Antidepressants and many mood-altering drugs - including those that produce addiction; such as amphetamines or cocaine - similarly achieve their behavioral effect by blocking or mimicking neurotransmitter activity and altering the messenger balance at the synapse and the homeostatic mechanisms that regulate synaptic transmission (Greek neuron nerve + Latin transmittere to transmit) (see UNIPOLAR DEPRESSION; BIPOLAR DEPRESSION; NEUROHORMONE; DEPRESSION; ADDICTION). (IP)
BRAIN-STEM DEATH : See BRAIN DEATH.
BRAIN LIFE : Term used to refer to the beginning of functioning of a brain during fetal growth, as a point in which a moral person is argued to begin. It is the opposite of brain death. (DM)
BRAINSTORMING: A stage of rapid production of ideas in which a group of minds come together with an attitude of imagination and intent to thrash out lists of options or possibilities. During the brainstorming session no ideas are criticized or considered too fanciful the elimination and selection processes come afterwards. (See IDEAS PRODUCTION) (MP)
BRAINWASHING: See PROPAGANDA.

BRCA1, BRCA2 GENES. Major breast cancer associated genes. Mutations in these genes lead to predisposition to breast and ovarian cancers. Their normal counterpart code for ubiquitously expressed proteins that are required for cellular proliferation, homologous recombination and DNA repair and transcriptional regulation. Since mutations in the gene are not causal for cancer development, and many different mutations have been found in the different populations at risk so far analyzed, counseling in female carriers of mutations is a delicate issue. Scientists from the University of Utah and the US company Myriad Genetics discovered the gene in 1994. A patent has been received by them for normal gene sequence, various mutations and diagnostic tests, which has raised controversy. (GK, JA).

BREAD: (Old Teutonic: brot 'piece of loaf') S taple food made of usually leavened moistened flour , kneaded and baked. As the basic dietary component going back thousands of years, humans have enjoyed a special cultural and spiritual relationship with bread. We need a high glucose intake for our brains and cereal metabolism is the best way to secure this; thus as the single most consumed foodstuff it also serves as a widespread symbol supporting livelihood - "Give us our daily bread" or "Bread winner" and of friendship or hospitality "Break bread" (Old Teutonic brot piece of loaf). (IP)
BREAST CANCER. One of the most frequent cancers in wealthy countries. Many genes contribute to its development. To date, two of the high risk factor genes have been cloned, whose mutations have been associated to the development of the disease in family as well as sporadic forms of the disease. (See also BRCA1 and BRCA2. ) (GK)
BREADTH OF COVERAGE: See DEPTH OF COVERAGE.
BREEDING : Biological process of producing a progeny with desired trait in plants and animals under specific conditions. Involves identification and control of human of human-use-value traits in further offspring. Enhancement of recognizable trait by human selection yielding improved varieties/breeds, e.g. Color, height, yield; or to yield better products e.g. good barley to make whisky. Compare to - Back cross - cross breeding of F1 hybrid offspring with one of the parents varying in their toxicity; Crosses - breeding different parental stocks. (JA)
BRIBERY : 1. the offering, giving, receiving or soliciting of something of value for the purpose of influencing the behavior of a bureaucrat, voter, legislator or sheriff in the discharge of his or her public or legal duty 2. receiving undue reward in return for exploiting his or her proper behavior in office. In common law the gist of the offence is the tendency to pervert the course of justice. (IP)

BROWN GALL DISEASE: Is caused by the  bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens -  a portion of  the plasmid DNA is transferred into the cell Ti plasmid can be transferred to a plant cell so as to  form a gall. (See Ti PLASMID). (JA)

BSE: See BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY.
BST: See BOVINE SOMATOTROPIN.
Bt : Acronym of Bacillus thuringiensis , produces a crystal endotoxin, protoxin, gut poison. Produces insect resistance protein, other variety of toxins. (JA)

BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE: Buckminsterfullerene is a hollow spherical molecule like a soccer ball made from carbon atoms. The are also known as ‘buckyballs’, and nameullerene (C ₆₀ ) is possibly the most symmetrically ‘round’ moleons in molecular electronics and nanotechnology. (See FULLERENES, NANOBOT, NANOTECHNOLOGY, MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS) (MP)

BUDDHA Title of Gautama Shakyamuni, born in Nepal, approx 6th century bce. Gautama was born to a wealthy family, and at first his parents shielded him from the unpleasantness of the outside world. However, eventually Gautama was faced with real-life examples of sickness, poverty, old age and suffering. These things troubled him, and he set out to examine the problem of suffering in the world and how to eliminate it. A key point in his teaching is that if an individual is unable to break free from the cycle of suffering in this lifetime, that individual is reborn to continue the quest for the release from suffering. (see KARMA) Buddha's teachings focus on the problem of suffering, its causes, and ways to reduce and elminate it. In a more general sense, the term "buddha" is applied to other individuals who have managed to achieve the release from the cycle of suffering. (AG)
BUDDHISM Belief in the philosophy of Buddha and the lifestyle based upon it. Two major branches of Buddhism are Theravada (school of the Elders) and Mahayana (lit. "Great Vehicle"). (AG)

BUFFER ZONES: Intervening areas of natural vegetation which provide National Parks and other forests protection from edge effects and the encroachment of other impacts. Buffer zones are important to reduce habitat fragmentation and demonstrate good environmental management policy outside parks and preserves. They provide wildlife corridors and improve the aesthetic values of suburban and rural landscapes. (See WILDLIFE CORRIDORS, EDGE EFFECTS, HABITAT FRAGMENTATION, MULTIPLE USE ZONES) (MP)

BUG: 1. An error in computer programming, for example incorrect coding of an instruction (syntax error) or instructions unable to provide the required solution to a particular problem (logic error). (See DEBUG, PROGRAM, COMPUTER VIRUS). 2. A tag or sensor such as a microphone or locator, usually covertly placed for the purposes of spying and strategic surveillance. Sensor networks and ‘smart dust’ are in thying invertebrates, especially beetles (Coleoptera) and cockroaches (Blattodea). (See COLEOPTERA) (MP &IP)

BULIMIA NERVOSA: (Greek: bous 'ox' + limos 'hunger') An eating disorder - also called binge eating - characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating and a feeling of lack of control of eating behavior during eating binges which are interspersed by self-induced vomiting, use of laxatives or diuretics, dieting and rigorous exercise all to prevent further weight gain. Bulimia may cause hormonal disorders followed by depression, disturbed menstrual cycles and fertility problems (Greek bous ox + limos hunger) (see ANORXIA NERVOSA; OBESITY). (IP)
BULLY: 1. a person who browbeats smaller or weaker people 2. Archaic : a man hired to do violence. (IP)
BURIAL: Placing of the body in the ground after death. This method of showing respect for the human body has been practiced since ancient times in many cultures around the world. It is the preferred method of dealing with the human body after death in Jewish, Muslim and many other traditions. Burial sites have been found around the world from prehistoric times onward. In many traditions, a place where humans are buried is a sacred site, or a site which is to be avoided. In Jewish tradition, the kohen (priest) is forbidden to approach a burial site, except in the case of the closest relatives and a person who has no relatives, and therefore has no one to look after burial procedures. (AG)
BUSH : in Australia and Africa represents the wild uncultivated indigenous forests and scrublands - countryside left in its native state; hence, 'go bush' or escaping one's usual surroundings for the natural landscape; that is, running wild. (See BUSH MEDICINE). (IP)
BUSH MEDICINE : The total sum of Australian Aboriginal knowledge accumulated over thousands of years in the use of indigenous plants and herbs with curative properties. On the whole, plant remedies represent a universal and continuous form of medicine with its chief therapeutic products becoming any nation’s specific "folk medicine". Australian bush medicine is based on word-of-mouth; that is, the digenous plant used in bush medicine has specific meaning and effects, either in isolation or plant remedies that compensate for one another’s undesirable properties. For example, a laxati eucalypt ingredient to improve the taste. Simiing metabolic activity. The basic assumption be influences of natural organic substances essen terms of proportions rather than measured amounts providing a relative simple holistic treatment in harmony with life and Nature - something that modern medicine lacks.
Since the accepted wisdom behind bush medicine is that the body is capable of healing itself once the proper conditions are provided, treatment remedies are designed to neutralize and eliminate from the body the harmful substances that impair its power to heal itself. Of course this kind of wisdom, which has been largely lost and replaced by modern - European mostly - beliefs and by synthetic pharmaceuticals, is common to many traditional remedies. However, in a new spirit of inquiry into Aboriginal heritage, the therapeutic property of Australian plants has become an important topic of study, documentation and retrieval of lost knowledge. In future the best of traditional Australian medicine may comfortably co-exist with the best of western-style medicine - there is space for both. (See BUSH, HERBALISM, HERB, NUTRITION, HERBAL MEDICINE, NATUROPATHY, AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL, RECONCILIATION, DREAMTIME OR DREAMING). (IP)
BY-CATCH: The accompanying organisms contained in a fishing catch which are incidental to the targeted effort. By-catch comprises a large proportion of the catch from commercial fish and prawn trawlers, impacting for example juvenile fish, invertebrates, turtles, coral and benthos. The portion of the by-catch returned to the sea, mostly dead or dying, is termed the discard catch. Technology and regulation help reduce ecological impacts, for example closure of trawling in estuaries to allow stock replenishment, catch-excluding devices for turtles and other animals, selective fishing gear, and a culture of catch-and-release. ( See SUSTAINABLE FISHING, DRIFTNETS, FISHING QUOTA) (MP)
BYTE : A subdivision of a word in computing; that is, the number of bits representing a single character such as a letter or number. (See CHARACTER). (IP)

CAPACITY BUILDING: A term widely used in humanitarian international development and reconstruction, ‘capacity building’ refers to the grcapacity for selfmic support, to security and good governance. (See PEACE BUILDING, DEVELOPMENT, FOURTH WORLD, MINORITY GROUP, EMPOWERMENT) (MP)

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT: The killing (e.g. by hanging, electrocution, lethal injection or shooting) of a convicted criminal. A significant number of countries have by now outlawed capital punishment and those which still practise it use it for fewer crimes, often only murder, than was once the case. Often cited intrinsic arguments against capital punishment include the assertion that only God has the right to take human life. However, in some societies a significant proportion of people don't believe in God, and, anyway, many religions permit people to be killed in certain circumstances, e.g. in war. One intrinsic argument in favour of capital punishment is that the right punishment for certain crimes - e.g. murder, treason or piracy - is to forfeit one's life. There are also consequentialist arguments both for and against capital punishment. Indeed, much of the information that would be needed to reach a rigorous consequentialist conclusion is uncertain. For example, does capital punishment act as a significant deterrent to crime and how often is the wrong person killed under capital punishment? (MR)
CAPITALISM : Capitalism is any economic system in which people make money out of other people's labour. It is generally the goal of capitalists to make as much money as possible by paying the labourer just a little less than one needs to support a family. But labour movements have forced employers, under threat of strikes, sometimes violent, to be more generous in their salaries. It used to be thought that socialism was the opposite of capitalism. But deeper analyses (such as by movements like the Industrial Workers of the World) pointed out that the leaders of socialist communities or societies are also living off the work of others, but calling themselves "leaders" or "managers" or "statesmen" rather than "capitalists". (FL)
CARBON: Sixth ELEMENT (q.v.) in the Periodic Table. Along with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and a few other elements, carbon is an essential constituent of all known life. Chemicals with more than just one or two carbon atoms are said to be 'organic'. All other chemicals are inorganic. (MR)

CARBON-BASED ELECTRONICS: See MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS

CARBON CHEMISTRY: See ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
CARBON CREDITS: See ENVIRONMENTAL COMPENSATION, GLOBAL WARMING.
CARBON CYCLE: The redistribution of carbon between organisms and the atmospheric, oceanic and terrestrial compartments. The cycle is primarily driven by the action of biological processes such as the removal of carbon from the atmosphere during photosynthesis and its return to the atmosphere during respiration. Human utilization of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal, have resulted in carbon dioxide being produced and released into the atmosphere faster than it is being removed by living organisms (see CARBON, GREENHOUSE EFFECT, NITROGEN CYCLE, PHOSPHORUS CYCLE). (MP)
CARBON DATING: See RADIOCARBON DATING.
CARBON DIOXIDE : (Chemical formula CO ₂ ; Latin carbo 'coal' + Greek dis 'twice' and oxys 'sharp'). A colorless, odorless gas produced naturally by the complete oxidation of carbon. It occurs in the atmosphere 0.03% and is found in solution in sea-water and rivers. CO ₂ plays an essential part in metabolism and ecosystem stability - a waste product of cellular respiration (carbohydrate and fat metabolism) utilized by plants during photosynthesis. That is, plants absorb carbon dioxide to obtain the carbon needed to build their tissues while plants and animals expel the gas as a product of food oxidation. In its solid form (dry ice) it is used in the treatment of some skin conditions. It is also used in fire-extinguishers, aerated water and in the bakery industry where bubbles of carbon dioxide liberated by yeast (or baking powder) in the dough lightens the dough rendering it more palatable. (See PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, CARBON FIXATION, GLOBAL WARMING, GREENHOUSE EFFECT). (IP)
CARCINOGEN: Substance that causes or increases the risks of developing cancer. (See Cancer ). (DM)
CARDINAL NUMBERS : Whole numbers such as 1, 2, 3 ... that are used for counting or for specifying the total number of items. (IP)
CARDINAL VIRTUES: The traditionally primary virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance.  (See VIRTUES) (MP)

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE : (Greek kardia 'heart'). Any abnormal condition characterized by the dysfunction of the heart or blood vessels such as arteriosclerosis, rheumatic heart disease and systemic hypertension. In affluent western societies such as the USA and Australia, cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death. (See STRESS; DISEASES OF ADAPTATION; GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME). (SG2+IP)

CARING: With the rise of VIRTUE ETHICS (q.v.) a caring person is increasingly recognised in ethics as a particular instance of a good person. Caring is not to be equated with BENEFICENCE (q.v.), having a more relational quality to it. FEMINISM (q.v.) has seen caring as a central human virtue yet one that has traditionally been undervalued both in academic ethics in particular and in patriarchal societies more widely. It has been strongly argued that caring is central to such professions as nursing and teaching. (MR)

CARRIER : Someone who may transmit a recessive genetic condition but who normally does not show any evidence of the disease (DM). It is possible to distinguish two types of carriers, sex-linked and autosomal carriers. In the first case, only women are carriers, and may transmit the disease gene to either sex of her children, but only boys will be affected in a ratio of 1 in 2 (50% chance). In the second case, if both parents are carriers of a mutant gene, any child has a chance of 1 in 4 (25%) to suffer the disease (GK).

CARRIER TESTING : Used to detect individuals who possess a single copy of a gene which follows an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance. Such an individual will not normally develop any disease or disorder but may pass on the gene to his or her offspring.
CARRYING CAPACITY: Carrying capacity (represented by the symbol K in ecology) is the maximum population density able to be sustained by an environment for a prolonged period of time without causing lasting damage or degradation. The concept also has applications to human ecology, for example in international development, food production or ecotourism management. (See SUSTAINABILITY, LIMITS OF ACCEPTABLE CHANGE) (MP)
CARSON, RACHEL: (1907-1964). Biologist and writer whose 1962 book Silent Spring has widely been hailed as heralding the environmental movement in the West. Carson initially specialised in English but her ambition to become a writer was initially overcome by her interest in natural history. For much of her working life she was genetic biologist and then editor-in-chief for the US Fish and Wildlife Service. In Silent Spring Carson presciently argued that chemical pollution, particularly through the widespread use of agricultural pesticides, was both killing wildlife and upsetting the balance of nature. (MR)
CARTEGENA PROTOCOL OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONVENTION : Ratified by fifty countries, this international treaty came into force on 11 September, 2003. It regulates the inter-country transfer of LMOs and GMOs. (DM)
CASUISTRY: A method of ethical analysis that emphasizes practical problem-solving through examining individual cases that are considered to be representative. (DM)
CATALYST : 1. A chemical which remains unchanged but acts to initiate or increase the rate of a chemical or biological reaction. 2. More generally, a catalyst may be any substance, course of action or idea which initiates or increases the efficiency of any process of change. (See ENZYME) (MP)
CATHEKONIC ETHIC : A philosophical principle that deals with the relationship between parts and the whole. (JA)
CATHOLIC: Universal. So, strictly, the Catholic Church is either the whole body of Christians or the whole Christian Church before it separated into the Greek (Eastern) and Latin (Western) branches. In practice, though, the Catholic Church is widely understood as the Roman Catholic Church, namely that part of the Latin Church which remained under Roman authority after the Reformation. Roman Catholic theology has been and remains important in much medical ethics, for example with regard to the PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE EFFECT (q.v.) and such issues as ABORTION (q.v.), CONTRACEPTION (q.v.) and EUTHANASIA (q.v.), with Roman Catholic teaching being strongly and consistently against all three. (MR)

CAUCASIAN : a term once used to describe an appearance including light skin and straight light to brown hair; that is, generally meaning of European descent. (See RACE; RACISM). (SG2)
CAUSATION: An interaction which produces or brings something about, pertaining to the cause and effect relation. Causes have consequences; affects have effects; act-contact-impact over time. Causation implies a pre-impact necessary connection and constant conjunction . Correlation or logical necessity may not necessarily indicate causation. Many things have a plurality of causes, the multitude of which leads to ‘ultimate’ causation and the freedom/determinism debate. (See CORRELATION, AFFECT, EFFECT, PROOF, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT) (MP)

CBD - see CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (JA)
CELL: The smallest component of life. Biological component of tissue - contains nucleus and cytoplasm (protoplasm). A membrane-bound protoplasmic body capable of carrying on all essential life processes. A single cell unit is a complex collection of molecules with many different activities all integrated to form a functioning, self-assembling, self-regulating, and self-reproducing biological unit. (DM)
CELL CULTURE: The propagation of cells removed from multicellular organisms in a laboratory environment that has strict sterility, temperature, and nutrient requirements. (DM)
CELL FUSION: The joining of the membrane of two cells, thus creating a single hybrid cell that contains nuclear matter from both the parent cells. (DM)
CELL HYBRIDIZATION  a not occur naturally. (JA)
CELL SUSPENSION: Made by cutting bits of tissues when shaken in liquid nutrient medium forms a single cell or clusters of cell suspension and having similar property as that of adult plant/animal. (JA)
CELSIUS DEGREE ( ° C) : (Swedish scientist Anders Celsius, 1701-1744). A unit of temperature difference equal to one hundredths of the difference between the temperatures of freezing and boiling water at one atmosphere pressure. On the Celsius scale water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C. Also called centigrade. (See FAHRENHEIT, TEMPERATURE). (IP)

CELLULAR AUTOMATA: Software ‘organisms’ which emictable programs ‘with a life of their own’ which have biological analogues such as heredity, fecundity, symbiosis, and the rapid evolution of complexity. (See GENETIC ALGORITHMS, ARTIFICIAL LIFE, ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS) (MP)

CELLULAR TRANSPLANTATION : Experimental transfer of cellular body components Eg. Blood transfusion, bone marrow /pancreatic islet cells. (JA)
CENSUS: 1. Statistics: a census is a survey which investigates every member of a statistical population to determine its parameters. 2. Sociology: a government- sponsored obligatory survey of all individuals in a country or region. Early censuses (from 1801 in Britain) were in the form of simple head-counts, but today census forms ask for a wide range of personal and household information. Privacy and trust issues make it preferable that the census be anonymous. Census data may be disaggregated to provide localized political, academic and market research. Social statistics are an important resource for investigating trends in social well being, stratification and sustainability. (MP)
CENTIGRADE : See CELCIUS DEGREE (°C).
CENTENARIAN: A person who has reached the age of one hundred years. (See LIFE EXTENSION) (MP)
CENTIMORGAN: A unit of measure of genetic recombination frequency. One centimorgan is equal to a 1 percent chance that a genetic locus will be separated from a marker due to recombination in a single generation. In human beings, 1 centimorgan is equivalent, on average, to 1 million base pairs. The recombination frequencies between two loci on a chromosome are not the same in both sexes, and may be quite different from one chromosomal region to the other. Therefore, genetic distances measured in centimorgans are just an approximate measure of the physical distance as measured in base pair units. (DM+GK)
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) : The major coordinating components of the nervous system and associated nerve cords, normally including the cerebral ganglia (brain) and ventral nerve (spinal cord). (See BRAIN, NEURON, AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM) (MP)
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) : The central 'brain' of the computer, able to perform logical and mathematical operations on data and control the execution of programming instructions. (See COMPUTER, MICROCHIP) (MP)

CENTRAL TENDENCY: See MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

CENTRE FOR ASIAN AND INTERNATIONAL BIOETHICS : A centre under the Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel.. The Centre conducts cross-cultural research into the foundations of ethics in Israeli and other Asian countries. It conducts a Mother and Child Health Education project, for Dalit (q.v.) village mothers in India, in cooperation with the Dalit Liberation Education Trust, and the Delta School of Nursing, Kadalure, Tamil-Nadu. The project began with the help of Mashav, the Department of International Cooperation of the Israeli Foreign Ministry. The Centre is preparing similar projects for other locations in developing countries. (FL)
CENTRIC : Adj. Mode of living in line with the centrality given to a concept/person. See CENTRISM. (JA)
CENTRISM : A model of concentric importance, giving a centrality of living/placing an object/person/concept a central guiding force, other life activities are determined/controlled/regulated in terms of such a centrality of living. Eg. Theocentrism (God centred), biocentrism (life), ecocentrism (green technology), Anthropocentrism (human), webcentrism (computer). (JA)
CENTROMERE: The small junction area between the two arms of a chromosome. (DM+GK)
CERES: Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies.
CEPH-GENETHON (Centre d"_tude des polymorphismes humains). French cell and DNA bank keeping a collection of DNA samples and immortalized cell lines from 58 Caucasian family donors. The families representing the panel have large kindred (6 children) and 4 living grand-parents, accounting for 1.212 meiosis. It has also developed a high density microsatellite physical map for each human chromosome, suitable for linkage analyses. (GK)
CEPHALOPODA : Members of the mollusc class Cephalopoda include the nautilus, cuttlefish, squid and of course the octopus, generally considered to possess the greatest intelligence of invertebrate organisms. (See MOLLUSCA) (MP)
CERVIX: (Latin cervix "neck") that part of the uterus that protrudes into the cavity of the vagina - also called the "neck of uterus". Cancer of the cervix is a major cause of death among women (see CERVICAL CANCER; CERVICAL MUCUS; OVULATION METHOD OF FAMILY PLANNING). (IP)
CERVICAL CANCER: a neoplasm (abnormal development of cells that may be benign or malignant) of the uterine cervix that can be detected in the early, curable stage by the Papanicolaou (Pap) smear test. If left untreated cervical cancer invades the adjacent tissues and organs and eventually metastasizes through lymphatic dispersal. Carcinoma in situ , on the other hand, may be easily treated by excision or cryosurgery. Factors, which may be associated with the development of cervical cancer, are coitus at an early age, relations with many sexual partners, genital herpesvirus infections, multiparty, and poor obstetric and gynecologic care (see PAP SMEAR TEST). (IP)
CERVICAL MUCUS: a secretion of the lining of the upper portion of the cervical canal of the uterus. The mucus" consistency and appearance changes throughout the menstrual cycle. Around the time of ovulation, the volume of mucus increases and becomes thin, clear elastic, and easily penetrable by sperm; during the infertile periods of the menstrual cycle the mucus is thick and less penetrable to bacteria and sperm. The cervical-mucus method of birth-control is based on the detection of this change in the vaginal mucus in order to avoid intercourse during the likely fertile period. (IP)
CESAREAN : see CAESARIAN

CHAKRABARTY VS DIAMOND CASE : The famous Diamond V Chakrabarty case in 1980 deals with the  patenting of a genetically modified “ crude oil eating” bacterium. The Se in nature and has the potential for significant utility value in environmental protection and cleaning.   (JA)

CHAIN REACTION: A self-sustaining series of reactions, in particular those of nuclear fission in which the particles released by one nucleus trigger the fission of at least as many further nuclei. (See CRITICAL MASS, CHINA SYNDROME, RADIOACTIVITY, NUCLEAR FISSION) (MP)

CHANGE: (See TIME, PROCESSES)
CHAOS THEORY: The notion in the natural sciences that a very small change in a system may have massive, unpredictable consequences. Memorably summed up by the 'Butterfly effect' in which it is possible, though of course, not certain, that the beating of a butterfly's wings in one part of the world may lead, a few weeks later, to a storm thousands of miles away. The indeterminacy of Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle (q.v.) and chaos theory effectively ended belief in a Newtonian, determinate world-view in which an accurate description of a system allows its future to be predicted absolutely. Nowadays, for example, scientists predict that however accurate our measuring instruments and powerful our computers we will never be able to predict local weather variations more than a couple of weeks ahead. (MR)
CHARACTER : One set of symbols such as a letter, number, punctuation mark or symbol that can be represented in a computer. A character is stored and manipulated in the computer as a group of bits. (See BYTE). (IP)
CHASTITY BELT: a lock-and-key device said to be worn by some women in the Middle Ages to cover their genitals to prevent sexual intercourse during their husband's absence in battle etc. Similar devices have been discovered in the Caucasus and among the Cheyenne First Nation people in America. The use, if indeed they were made use of, of these devices epitomizes negative societal attitudes towards women by emphasizing their belonging - property of - another. (IP)
CHEMICAL POLLUTION: See POLLUTION.
CHEMISTRY : The study of the states, reactions, and products of elements and compounds. (RW)
CHEMOSYNTHESIS: The formation or synthesis of organic nutritive substances in plants or animals by the use of energy derived from simple chemical reactions. For example, anaerobic bacteria such as the methanogens which live within the decaying sediments of bogs and marshes and produce methane gas. (See ANAEROBE, PHOTOSYNTHESIS) (MP)
CHEMOTAXIS the process whereby bacteria that possess flagellae for propulsion sense a concentration gradient of a chemical substance in the medium and move either toward or away from it (see TAXIS). IP
CHEMOTHERAPY the treatment of diseases with chemical agents. The procedure involves the exploitation of biochemical differences between the disease process and the host tissue in order to interfere selectively with the disease process; for example, in selectively destroying cancer cells. Modern biochemical pharmacology is based on designing specific inhibitors targeted to discriminate against a metabolic process that is specific to the pathological condition. (IP)

CHERNOBYL: A city in the Soviet Republic of Byelorussia and the site of the world’s most disastrous nuclear accident in April 1986. The nuclear energy red radiation-related ailments such as endocrine/immune system problems and birth defects. (See CHINA SYNDROME, NUCLEAR FISSION, RADIOACTIVITY, THREE MILE ISLAND, BHOPAL) (MP)

CHI-SQUARE TEST : A measure of how well a theoretical probability distribution fits a set of data. The test is typically used in analyzing experimental data with standard normal distributions. (See ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, SCIENTIFIC METHOD, STATISTIC). (IP)
CHILD ABUSE: physical, sexual, or emotional mistreatment of an infant or child by any adult or adults. Major therapeutic and statutory concerns are identifying dysfunctional family members, friends or relatives and the children at risk. A duty of care falls on any individual who is confronted with children with obvious physical signs (the "battered-child syndrome") such as burns, welts, bruises, frequent physical mishaps/fractures, suspected sexual molestation, or signs of emotional distress and overall failure to thrive. Characteristically, abuse may be seen as the final behavioral consequence of multiple factors compounded by a variety of stressful circumstances; such as drug abuse, lack of emotional support within the family unit or lack of nurturing experience, possibly by victims of child abuse themselves. Child Sexual Abuse is the involvement of dependent, developmentally immature children and adolescents in sexual activities to which they are unable to give informed consent, and which violate the social taboos of family responsibilities. Despite recent insights, there still remain a large number of uncertainties and confusions surrounding child abuse. To some degree, this may be due to the particular protection society affords to "family business" and problems adults have in dealing with sexuality in themselves and in children. Additionally the area of child abuse is difficult to research objectively because it raises issues about power, secrecy, shame and guilt. (See ABUSE; elder abuse ; DRUG ABUSE). (IP)
CHILD NEGLECT: See CHILD ABUSE.
CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE: See CHILD ABUSE.
CHILDREN : In the US it is the age designation for humans 2-12 years old . (DM)
CHILDREN WARRIORS: See CHILD ABUSE, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY.
CHIMERA: An organism formed by the aggregation of cells taken from different genotypes. Chimeric embryos may occur naturally or artificially. An inter-species chimera is when the cells are from different species. Combination of unrelated species, ancient mythical gods with human-lion, human horse, human monkey, human-elephant head combinations in Hindu and Greek mythology. Insertion of foreign animal genes in plant/human in a particular species. Cell fusion of two species, Sheep-goat resulting in a Geep. See GEEP.
Ethical questions include - is it a sheep with pig genes, or is it a sheep or a pig? What percentage determines a species in transgenic? Is a human body with a pig head human or a pig? It dilutes the concept of speciation. (DM, JA)

CHINA SYNDROME: A term used to describe a catastrophic nuclear energy reactor core meltdown, in which the radioactive fuel would melt unstoppably into the earth, colloquially “all the way to China”. Chernobyl was a ho (See CHERNOBYL, THREE MILE ISLAND, NUCLEAR FISSION, CHAIN REACTION) (MP)

CHINDOGU: A Japanese word for those practically useless consumer goods which are nevertheless commonly produced and purchased by the wealthy as a result of the temptations of glossy advertising. Chindogu may include novelty items, unwanted gifts, technological gizmos and other wasted resources. (See CONSPICUOUS CONSUMPTION) (MP)
CHLORDANE : Chlordane, also known as Octachlor, is a dangerous chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide, one of the 'dirty dozen' persistent organic pollutants. (See PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS) (MP)
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS : Persistent organic pollutants including DDT, Dieldrin, Aldrin, Endrin and Chlordane used as pesticides but today maligned and phased out across much of the world because of their medical/ecological impacts such as toxicity and bioaccumulation. (See PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS) (MP)
CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS OR CFCs: Volatile compounds commonly known as "Freons". The chemicals have been used in association with refrigerant fluids, solvents, aerosol propellants and blowing agents in the fabrication of foam plastics. Their extraordinarily high stability enables them to persist in the atmosphere and to enter the stratosphere where they are the major culprit in ozone layer depletion (see OZONE HOLE). Lag times before the effects of human-driven change emerge can often be long; for example, CFCs released into the atmosphere now will damage the ozone layer in thirty to eighty years time, risking a false sense of safety. (IP)
CHLOROPLAST: Those structures within plant cells where photosynthesis occurs. They contain small circular DNA molecules that replicate independently of the nucleus. (DM)
CHOICE: See SCIENCE OF CHOICE.
CHORDATA : The bilaterally symmetrical animal phylum characterized by the presence of a flexible, rod-like notochord during at least some stage of development. The notochord serves as the main internal structural element in primitive chordates, but develops into a true backbone in others, such as the Vertebrata. (RW)
CHORIONIC VILLI: Finger-like projections growing from the external surface of the chorion that contribute to the formation of the placenta. (DM)
CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING (CVS): The procedure used in prenatal diagnosis to take a small sample of the chorionic villi for testing, such as genetic screening. (DM)
CHRIST, JESUS: Central figure of the Christian faith, understood in a unique way as God's Son and, along with God the Father and the Holy Spirit, as one of the Trinity. Seen by some other faiths as a great prophet. (MR)
CHRISTIAN ETHICS : System of belief about right and wrong actions and attitudes derived from, or at least strongly influenced by, Christianity (faith in Jesus, the Christ as the one son of God). Much Christian ethics derives from scripture, so discussions / disagreements among Christians about such matters as divorce often cite particular verses in the bible that deal with the issue. Many of today’s ethical issues, of course, lack much or any specific scriptural reference – e.g. genetic engineering, euthanasia, cloning, and the conservation of endangered species. Christian ethicists typically still draw on more general scriptural principles – e.g. about the place of God in creation, and stewardship – as well as reason and tradition when debating such issues. (MR)
CHRISTIANS : The disciples of the Lord Jesus Christ were called Christians in the city of Antioch (Bible. Acts. 11:26). Their life style was so unique that King Agrippa replied St Paul " Do you think that in such a short time you can persuade me to be a Christian" (Acts. 21:28). Till about 300 AD, Christians were persecuted (1 Peter 4:16) like the people living in Cappadocia (now in Turkey). Although there are two major divisions, namely Protestants and Roman Catholics, these groups are not found in the Bible, there are now many sects among Christians, which are based on minor doctrinal differences. (JA)
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES: Congential disorders or genetic mutations involving changes in the number and structure of chromosomes. (see DOWN'S SYNDROME, XYY KARYOTYPE) (DM)
CHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS : See CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES.
CHROMOSOME: chromo (clor) soma (body), stains with basic dyes. Specific to each species. A structure that lies inside a cell's nucleus. A chromosome is composed mainly of DNA. Each normal cell of the human body has 23 pairs of chromosomes. The organelle found in which they are found is the nucleus, containing DNA 23 pairs in human being. See KARYOTYPE, AUTOSOME. (JA)
CHRONICALLY ILL See CHRONIC DISEASE, CRITICALLY ILL, DISABLED, REHABILITATION, TERMINALLY ILL.
CHRONOCENTRISM: (From the Greek "chrono-"= time + center+ ism) A belief or viewpoint which holds that a particular time period is better than others, and that the society which lives in that time period is superior to societies which live/d in other time periods. During the 20th century, many new terms were coined to acknowledge the growing awareness that being self-focused (either as an individual or as a group) has negative aspects, and that there are multiple viewpoints and perspectives that need to be recognised. The terms "racism", "sexism", "antisemitism", and "ageism" demonstrate examples of discrimination applied to certain groups of people, based upon the conditions of their birth, whether gender, ethnicity, race or religion are a factor. The coining of "ageism" also shows awareness of a person's age and how that affects the way that person is viewed in society. There is also recognition of the problem of discrimination of people with disabilities of various sorts. However, there is another subtle form of self-centered thinking, which has not been acknowledged with a special term, and this is why the term "chronocentrism" is being offered.
It is difficult to claim that chronocentrism is a form of discrimination in the usual sense of the word. The reason is that generally chronocentrism is applied towards people who are not currently alive. Chronocentrism is not quite the same as discrimination against people who were born earlier, and thus lived their formative years in a different societal and technological setting. It is also not quite the same as discrimination applied towards a traditional society that is considered "backward". In both cases, the discrimination is applied to people, and the negative attitude towards those people's ideas is given as the reason for the discrimination. However, in the case of chronocentrism, the negative attitude is applied to a society, rather than towards a particular person. That society is held to be "inferior" to one's own. In some ways, this parallels negative attitudes towards foreign societies that are contemporary with one's own. However, in the case of chronocentrism, the negative attitude is applied even towards one's own society of a different time period. While this does not have a direct affect on a particular human being, it can have affect on a large number of people, because chronocentrism is directed at the values and lifestyle of society. Derivative forms include "chronocentric" for an adjectival form, "chronocentrist"- "one who practices chronocentrism". (AG)
CHU HSI: (pinyin spelling Zhu Xi) (1130-1200) Confucian scholar and philosopher. His most influential work included commentary of the classical Confucian texts. Zhu Xi's interpretations became the official interpretation of Confucian texts, and so, his commentaries exerted considerable influence on Chinese thought for centuries. (AG)
CHUANG TZU: Chinese philosopher (c.369-286 BCE). The work which bears his name, the Chuang Tzu, is one of the key philosophical texts of Taoism along with the Tao Te Ching. (See TAOISM, TAO TE CHING, LAO TSE) (MP)
CIA: Central Intelligence Agency (U.S.)
CIESIN: Center for International Earth Science Information Network (US).
CIGUATERA: food item that is not toxic in itself becomes toxic due to contamination - bacterial/toxic diatoms/heavy metals. (JA)

CILIA: Short hair-like structures on a cell or microorganism, the movement of which aids mobility of the cell and transfer of materials across its surface. (See FLAGELLA) (MP)   

CIRCUMCISION, MALE : Practiced for religious reasons by Jews and Muslims, and for medical reasons to a large extent in the United States and Canada. Reviews conducted by committees of the Canadian Pediatric Society and the American Medical Association acknowledged some benefits of the operation for reducing sexually transmitted disease, penile cancer and neonatal urinary tract infections. But they also noted dangers of surgical error and complications. Both the benefits and the risks are statistically small, and they are close to equal. So both committees recommended against routine medical neonatal circumcision. Their reports were published, however, before more recent research suggesting that circumcision may protect against AIDS because receptors for the HIV virus are located on the inner side of the foreskin and at the point where the foreskin is attached to the penis.
There is a debate in Jewish tradition between those who believe, with Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Saadia Gaon, that circumcision improves the baby by removing an unnecessary piece of skin, and those who believe, with Maimonides (q.v.) that nature never does anything unnecessarily, and that whatever nature does routinely (as opposed to mutations) is for the good of health. Maimonides believed that the foreskin performs a perfectly healthy function, contributing to pleasure and erectile Function, and that Jews are commanded to remove it in order to reduce sexual pleasure to no more than is needed to perform the Biblical commandment to be fruitful and multiply. There are religious Jewish movements today, associated with Reform Judaism, who want to do away with infant circumcision. (FL)
CIRCUMCISION, FEMALE : See FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION.
CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE: Common-sense notion of indirect information that suggests the most likely explanation for some event. For example, if a gun shot is heard from a room with only one entrance/exit and I then walk out and others then find a dead woman in the room, there is circumstantial evidence that I killed her. Of course, it could be that she killed herself, that I shot her but she was already dead, etc.. (MR)
CITES : Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species.

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE: An individual or community action which, although is in violation of the law, acts as an expression of personal or ideological values and a democratic plea for legal change. Examples include ‘Reclaim the Streets’ for pedestrians and the ‘Mardi Grass’ for advocates of pot decriminalization. (See CRITICAL MASS, RECLAIM THE STREETS, MARDI GRASS, ACTIVISM, NONVIOLENT DIRECT ACTION) (MP)

CJD : see CREUZFELDT-JABOB DISEASE
CLAIRVOYANCE: (French: "clear-seeing") The clairvoyant is a person who claims, without apparent sensory means, awareness of events occurring at a distance or the ability to foretell future events. (See EXTRA-SENSORY PERCEPTION, TELEPATHY, PRECOGNITION) (MP)
CLASH OF CIVILIZATIONS: A popular term emphasizing the role of inter-civilizational differences as one of the causes of wars, cold war and international tension, for example contrasts between the dominant religious/political/ideological systems of the Sinic, Islamic and Western civilizations. Popularized by Samuel Huntington's 1997 book of the same name, the clash of civilizations hypothesis experienced a revival after the 2001 terrorist attacks upon America. Although a useful basis for peace research and the search for common philosophical ground, care should be taken not to promote the concept of a divided world. Such generalizations should not ignore the positive international effects of multiculturalism, trade, travel and human diversity, nor the fact that civilizational differences are often merely used as an excuse to justify war - the true underlying reasons for war usually more directly involve power, territory, resources and/or economics. (See CIVILIZATION, WESTERN CIVILIZATION) (MP)
CLASS: (Latin: classis "rank") 1. Sociology: A division or classification of people by economic, cultural or social ranking, or containing members sharing common attributes. Social rank, economic stratum and cultural caste may be useful classifications for understanding socioeconomic systems, but should be broken down to bring people together rather than emphasizing difference and encouraging prejudice. (See CASTE SYSTEM) 2. Biology: The taxonomic classification of organisms below the phylum, and containing one or more orders. For example Class Reptilia, or Class Mammalia which includes humans. (MP)
CLASSICAL MECHANICS : A system of mechanics that is based on Newton's laws of motion; that is, the laws of bodies acted on by forces. Einstein's theory of relativity and Planck's quantum theory are not taken into account. Classical mechanics is essentially experimental and its laws are based in intuitive deduction. (See NEWTON, SIR ISAAC, NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION, QUANTUM THEORY, RELATIVITY THEORY). (IP)
CLAUSEWITZ, CARL VON: Prussian-born military officer and strategist Carl von Clausewitz (1780-1831) was the author of On War, considered one of the definitive collections of insights on the subject. Although his work has negligible emphasis on morality or war ethics, its contributions to the theory and nature of war include valuable insights. Clausewitz argues that politics is the source and objective of war, which is mere "continuation of policy by other means". (See INSTITUTION OF WAR) (MP)
CLEAN PRODUCTION : A worldwide movement towards greener production practices, 'cleaner production' (or 'clean production', emphasizing the shift towards zero impacts) includes efforts towards the minimization of resource use, ecological disruption, social impacts, industrial emissions and wasteful products or processes. (MP)
CLEAVAGE: The stage of cell division that takes place immediately after fertilization and that lasts until the cells begin to segregate and differentiate and to develop into a blastocyst. (IP)
CLIA 88 : Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendment of 1988 by the FDA, prescribing federal regulations in genetic testing.
CLIMATE: Conditions of temperature, rainfall, humidity, etc. in a region. Of little ethical concern until in recent years when it has been realised that climate can be affected by human actions, as, for example, in GLOBAL WARMING (q.v.). (MR)
CLIMATE CHANGE: (MP & IP) (See GREENHOUSE EFFECT, GLOBAL WARMING)
CLINICAL ETHICS : The identification, analysis, and resolution of moral problems that arise in the care of individual patients. (DM)
CLINICAL ETHICS COMMITTEES : Institutional committees established to protect the welfare of patients. (See ETHICS COMMITTEES). (DM)
CLINICAL TRIALS: A general term for attempts to make testing of new drugs as scientific as possible. Clinical trials are the central method for applying the ideal of "Evidence Based Medicine", i.e. allowing into the physician's pharmacopoeia and clinical repertoire only those drugs and techniques which have been scientifically proved to be safe and effective. This is still far from reality, however, as it is generally understood that the majority of treatments in use today are still based upon the collective experience of the profession, and not on scientific evidence. Also, controlled clinical trials of surgical techniques lag far behind those of drugs.
After a new drug is studied in vitro and with animal subjects (a bioethical issue in itself) controlled clinical trials are performed on human subjects, ideally with the free informed consent of the patient, although this is problematic in pediatric, psychiatric and geriatric medicine. Trials are "controlled" in that the test group may be compared with a group which receives no treatment, or with a group receiving an existing treatment, or with a group receiving a placebo. The most recent version of the Helsinki Declaration (q.v.) however, recommends using an existing treatment for comparison rather than a placebo. The bioethical reason is that patients may find that their only hope for cure is to enter a trial and take a risk of getting the placebo rather than the real treatment. This would be a form of coercion. Trials are also supposed to be "double blind" in the sense that both the physician and the patient are not supposed to know who is getting the treatment and who is getting the placebo.
Clinical trials are usually sponsored by the corporation which has invested in developing the drug, and which hopes to eventually make a profit. This can lead to many bioethical problems. For example, there is little uniformity among contracts between drug companies and physician-researchers, but some have clauses forbidding the physician to divulge to a third party or to publish information learned during the conduct of the trial, unless the drug company gives permission. A physician, whose first loyalty must be to one's patients, and to patients in general, has a bioethical dilemma when one has concluded that the drug is detrimental to the patients, but the drug company is slow about giving permission to publish this information. By the time the drug company gets around to giving permission, some patients can be hurt. Physicians who have seen their loyalty to their patients, and their academic freedom to publish data which can prevent future harm to patients, as more important than their contract with the drug company, have not always been supported by their hospitals and universities. (FL)
CLINICAL TRIALS, INFORMED CONSENT IN PEDIATRIC, PSYCHIATRIC AND GERIATRIC : The requirement for freely-given informed consent becomes problematic when the patient is incapable of clearly understanding and freely assenting, or when the patient's competence is on the borderline. Such cases may be more the rule than the exceptions in hospitals, where even the most sane, intelligent and well-informed patients may be in pain, in fear and under great emotional pressure. These problems are amplified when the patient is a baby, or mentally ill or a geriatric patient in or close to dementia, or when the patient is in coma. In order to allow research to proceed, the concept of a "proxy" or "surrogate" was devised. A parent of a baby, for example, or a family member of an adult incompetent patient, is allowed to give the "free informed consent" thereby preserving the ideology of "autonomy". But this is a legal and bioethical fiction.
When the treatment under trial is indicated for the clear medical benefit of the patient, then there is room for proxy assent. Obviously a parent can impose treatment (an unpleasant vaccine injection, for example) when it is clearly for a baby's good. But more attention must be paid to formulating ethics of interventional trials on healthy babies, or on other patients who are incapable of giving free informed consent by themselves. (FL)
CLONE: A collection of cells or organisms that are genetically identical. An identical genetic copy of an organism - animal/plant/ human being. (DM, JA)
CLONING: The process of asexually producing a group of cells (clones), all genetically identical to the original ancestor. In recombinant DNA manipulation procedures to produce multiple copies of a single gene or segment of DNA. The production of a cell or an organism from a somatic cell of an organism with the same nuclear genomic (genetic) characters - without fertilization. (See STEM CELLS) (DM, JA)
CLOSED LOOP RECYCLING: See DEEP DESIGN VALUE SYSTEM.

CLOSED QUESTIONS: Questions which have a restricted range of answers. In research such as social surveys this may facilitate statistical analysis. Closed questions only requiring short answers include ‘Who?’, ‘When?’ and ‘Where?’, and are not as effective in encouraging the shy communicator to speak at social occasions. (See OPEN QUESTIONS) (MP)

CNIDARIA : The phylum of exclusively aquatic, invertebrate animals characterized by radial symmetry, a sac-like internal cavity and nematocysts stinging cells. There are four major groups of cnidarians: The Anthozoa include the corals, sea pens, and anemones. The Hydrozoa include many medusae, the hydroids, and siphonophores. The Scyphozoa are the true jellyfish. The Cubozoa are the box jellies. (RW)
CNS : See CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT: (See INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT, STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT)

COBE: Cosmic Background Explorer satellite, launched on 18 Nov. 1989 to map radio-wave data and investigate the nature and origin of the early universe. (See SATELLITE, BIG BANG, ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION) (MP)

COCA : A species of South American shrub Erythroxylum coca , native to Bolivia and Peru containing a natural source of cocaine. Traditionally, the leaves are dried and chewed or prepared in coca tea for their mild stimulant effect. (See COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE). (IP)
COCAINE: See COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE.
COCAINE BABIES: the birth of a growth retarded infant with birth defects caused by exposure to cocaine prior to conception or during pregnancy. Direct causes may be poor sperm or egg quality of a male or female cocaine user, and/or drug-effects in utero adversely affecting the developing embryo and fetus. Contributing causes may be poor nutritional habits and abuse of additional substances such as alcohol and tobacco (see COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE; CRACK; ADDICTION). (IP)
COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE: a crystalline alkaloid derived from coca leaves but can also be manufactured synthetically. Traditionally used as a local anesthetic cocaine, when taken internally, is highly toxic with serious psychotropic effects. It is one of the most powerful dopamine-enhancing drugs and achieves its effect at the nerve synapse by blocking the neuron’s recycling system for dopamine; thus dramatically increasing the amount of dopamine messenger available to stimulate neurotransmission. Throf excitability characterized by euphoria, optimism, increased energy and decreased need for sleep. The euphoric effect lasts about 30 minuttement, restlessness, incoherent speech, fever, hypertension, and cardiac arrhythmias which can lead to convulsions, respiratory arrest and ssion so frequently abuse it (see CRACK; COCA; COCAINE BABIES; ADDICTION). (IP)
CODE: A set of principles (see GENETIC CODE).
CODE OF HAMMURABI: (actually should be Hammurapi, based on Ugaritic texts) Major lawcode of ancient Mesopotamia. This lawcode is named for Hammurapi, the king 6th king of the first dynasty of Babylon (1792-50 bce). On the stele of Hammurapi, the king is protrayed as receiving the lawcode from Shamash, the sun god. The laws in the code demonstrate three levels in society: the awilum (free man), the mushkenum (the dependant, of somewhat lower status than the awilum), and the wardum (slave). Each is judged according to his social class, and greater damages are awarded to an awilum who was injured than a mushkenum or wardum who was injured. The principle of "an eye for an eye" is applied to the extreme in this lawcode. Many of the cases in the code of Hammurapi are dealt with in the Torah as well, and so, this lawcode has become a popular source of comparison between Babylonian law and Jewish law. The text of the code is written in the Babylonian dialect of the Akkadian language. (AG)
CODES OF CONDUCT: See ENVIRONMENTAL CODE OF CONDUCT.

CODES OF ETHICS : Systems of principles or rules of ethical professional conduct, usually established by professional societies. An ethical code governs , for instance, the use of a technology or the Patient -Doctor relationship. Ethical considerations form a guideline evoking acceptable behavior based on moral values and practical experiences. It serves as a regulatory principle e.g. marketing and labeling of GM food, confidentiality in the treatment of people living with HIV and AIDS.  (DM, JA).

CODEX ALIMENTARIUS COMMISSION (CAC): The joint FAO-WHO Intergovernmental body that makes legally binding standards for international regulation of food quality, safety and trade. (DM)
CODOMINANT. 1. From the phenotypic point of view, status of the alleles of an autosomal gene, where both contribute to the phenotype due to that particular gene in a heterozygote. 2. From the molecular point of view, differences in the two copies of a specific gene in a heterozygous person, that can be visualized by molecular methods (i.e., two sizes of a STR or a VNTR, or presence/absence of a restriction site from a RFLP marker). (GK)
CODON: A sequence of three DNA base pairs which codes for an amino acid. Consist of three nucleotides, a three lettered code word (e.g. UUU for phenylalanine/AAA= lysine) for each of 20 amino acids. (DM, JA)
COEFFICIENT VARIATION: It is the measure of how much bigger is the standard deviation when compared with the mean (JA)

COELENTERATES: Coelenterata is previous taxonomical terminology for the phylum Cnidaria. The coelenterates (cnidarians) include corals, hydrozoans and jellyfish. (See CNIDARIA) (MP)

COERCION : An action taken to force another to adopt a behaviour. Issues include force feeding, and mandatory programs as compared to voluntary programs. (DM)
COGNISANCE: (Latin: cognitio 'apprehend') 1. knowledge, awareness, perception, bioethics self-awareness 2. to investigate for the purpose of knowing, to understand, learn knowledge, recognition by observation or information 3. consciousness, state of awareness [Latin cognitio apprehend] (IP)
COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPY: was conceived and developed by Aaron Beck, a professor of psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania, and emphasizes the power of positive thinking. Basically the therapy assumes that, given accurate information, the brain can "think" its way back to health; that is, by harnessing its powerful intelligence, the brain can learn to be objective about itself and replace old destructive thinking patterns with new, constructive adaptive ones. Cognitive-behavioral therapists believe that conscious thought, rather than unconscious motivation, determines social behavior; therefore, with professional guidance, individuals can learn to change their maladaptive attitudes toward other people. This form of therapy differs from the older psychodynamic therapies by placing greater emphasis upon the active participation of the patient, with the ultimate goal being the regaining of personal control of the social environment through self-education and learned optimism. These therapies have been compared, head-to-head, with antidepressant drugs in the treatment of acute episodes of depression, and found to be effective, especially in milder illness. It seems, therefore, that thinking about how one thinks is an essential tool because it provides a sense of personal control and complements the wise use of medication (see ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY). (IP)
COGNITIVE LIMITS: See IMPOSSIBILITY, UNKNOWABLE.

COHERENCE: A set of beliefs or theories are in coherence when they are mutually supportive and none are inconsistent with any other. (See CONSILIENCE, CORRELATION) (MP)
COHORT: A group of individuals of the same age/generation within a population. It is often useful in ecological management and marine conservation to track cohorts through their life cycle within the general population. (See AGE DISTRIBUTION) (MP)
COITUS : (Latin coire ‘to go together’). An act of intercourse that usually, but not always, involves penetration of the penis into the vagina and results in sexual excitation and, as a rule, orgasm. (See COITUS INTERRUPTUS). (IP)

COITUS INTERRUPTUS : Withdrawal of the penis from the vagina just before ejaculation. It is thought to be the oldest method of contraception and is mentioned in the Book of Genesis. The method is not reliable (failure rate is above 15%) because small amounts of sperm containing seminal fluid may be emitted before full sensation leading to ejaculation is felt. Unwanted conceptions may carry the risk of conflict, resentment and prenatal/postnatal neglect. (See NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHODS, CONTRACEPTIVES, CONDOM). (IP)

COLEOPTERA : The insect order containing the beetles, Coleoptera is such a diverse and widespread order that beetles comprise over a quarter of all species found on Earth today. (MP)
COLLATERAL DAMAGE: (Collateral: "situated beside" + Damage: "injury or loss") A military term referring to civilian victims and casualties of military operations, including non-combatant deaths or injuries and damages to civil property. The 1949 Geneva Convention and 1977 Geneva Protocol outline internationally recognized protections for innocent civilians. Scrutinized strategic targeting with modern precision weapons has changed the nature of war in comparison to the deliberate targeting of civilian populations in World War II. Collateral damages are today generally unintentional, and can be used for propaganda purposes and war crimes allegations. The term collateral damage is a good example of the use of euphemism to render distasteful concepts obscure to the layperson. (See GENEVA CONVENTIONS, JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL, EUPHEMISM, REFUGEES, CASUALTIES, POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER) (MP)

COLLECTIVE: A group of people who have assembled together due to similar value systems and a common cause; for example a collective farm or kibbutz. (See UNITED) (MP)
COLLECTIVE BARGAINING: The practice of reaching work and pay agreements directly through representatives of employers and employees, often bypassing workers rights protection afforded by industrial dispute institutions such as trade unions. (See INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS, INDUSTRIAL ACTION) (MP)
COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS: A hypothetical spiritual communion of all thoughts, emotions, memes and memories into a collective or super-consciousness, perhaps with emergent properties. (See COLLECTIVE MEMORY, COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS, INFOSPHERE, MORPHIC RESONANCE) (MP)

COLLECTIVE MEMORY: The "meme pool", or shared and combined experiences and memories of the sentient animals on Earth. Although each of us has a unique set of memories, we also have shared memories of our historical record and our collective achievements and mistakes. The expansion of this shared consciousness through the promotion of learning can help to guide us towards a more ethical future in which previous human and environmental tragedies are not perpetuated. (See MEME, CULTURE, DREAMTIME) (MP)
COLLECTIVE SECURITY : This concept grew out of the Geneva conferences on disarmament after the First World War. Literally the term meant that under the covenant of the League of Nations, the member states of the League should together guarantee the security of each individual member. (See INSTITUTION OF WAR). (IP)

COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS: A Jungian psychological theory in which some collective aspects of consciousness such as community history may be imprinted in the individual unconscious mind. (See COLLECTIVE MEMORY, COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS) (MP)  
COLLECTIVISM: A socio-political ideology in which means of production and control are placed with the people collectively, usually represented by the state. The emphasis is on responsibilities rather than rights, and the collective is more important than personal individuality. Collectivism may incorporate aspects of family, democracy, socialism and/or Confucianism.  (See INDIVIDUALISM) (MP)

COLONIALISM: The domination of a country by the imposition of economic, religious, cultural and language practices of the colonial power upon local populations. Examples include the colonization of the African, Asian, Australian and American continents by the English, French, Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese during the 15th to 18th centuries. Most of these colonies have now been granted political autonomy, although usually with the maintenance of cultural and economic ties. Any Western expansionist policies left over from the Ages of Discovery and Imperialism have today been replaced by economic ones. (MP)
COMA : Unconscious state, which may occur after a traumatic accident or stroke. Usually afer two weeks a person is either dead, or enters persistent vegetative state. (See BRAIN DEATH, PVS). (DM)
COMMENSALISM: A symbiotic relationship in which one species gains some benefit from an association with another species, but in which the second partner has neither benefit nor detriment. An example of a commensal organism is the rainforest epiphyte, which grows on the trunk of a host tree and gains the advantage of support, shelter, access to leaf litter, water flow and sunlight. (See SYMBIOSIS, PARASITE). (MP)
COMMON GOOD: The good of every body. (See JUSTICE). (DM)
COMMON LAW 1. the part of a system of laws of any state or nation that is of a general and universal application 2. the system of laws originated and developed in England, based on court decisions, on the doctrines implicit in those decisions, and on customs and usages, rather than on codified written laws (see STATUTE LAW) (IP)
COMMON SENSE: The basic level of practical knowledge and judgment that we all need to help us live in a reasonable and safe way. Common sense varies between people and culture, though it is still called "common". (DM)
COMMONS: Land not owned privately but in public ownership. (See TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS ) (MR)
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES : Diseases that can be transferred between individuals, infectious diseases. (DM)
COMMUNICATION: The sending and reception of useful information between two or more parties. (See DISCOURSE ) (MR)

COMMUNISM: The belief in a society without different classes in which the methods of production are owned and controlled by all its members and everyone works as much as they can and receives what they need. It is a system of political and economic organization in which property is owned by the state or community and all citizens share in the common wealth, more or less according to their need.  Many small communist communities have existed at one time or another, most of them on a religious basis, generally under the inspiration of a literal interpretation of Scripture. In 1848 the word communism acquired a new meaning when it was used as identical with socialism by Karl MARX and Friederich ENGELS in their famous Communist Manifesto . They and their followers used the term to mean a late stage of socialism in which goods would become so abundant that they would be distributed on the basis of need rather than of endeavour. The Bolshevik wing of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party, which took power in Russia in 1917, changed its name to the All-Russian Communist Party in 1918. Thus the Soviet Union and other states that were governed by Soviet-type parties were referred to as “Communist” and their official doctrines were called “Communism,” although in none of these countries had a communist society in its original meaning been fully established. (DM)
COMMUNITARIANISM : An ethical and political philosophy which combines meritism in the allocation of rights with collectivism in regard to freedom. Central to the communitarian idea of democracy is that citizens' true opinions can only be detected by observing the community's traditional responses to ethical issues; that is, the citizens have to condone traditional values such as, for example, the prohibition of contraceptives on religious grounds. There are two main dividing lines between the most important late twentieth-century theories of ethical and political philosophy. The first distinction concerns the nature of human individualism; that is, freedom or liberalism. The second distinction concerns the nature of human rights or entitlements of help from others in situations where they cannot cope for themselves. These categories can be divided into the ethics of self-actualization and the ethics of caring and are, clearly, interrelated since the second (freedom from need) is a prerequisite to the first (liberty to freely express ones genetic potential). Within these two main dividing lines there are four distinct principles of social and political philosophy; libertarianism, socialism, communitarianism and liberal utilitarianism. All of these four doctrines can be democratic in their own special ways, but the content and principles of democracy varies considerably from one theory to another. (See LIBERTARIANISM; LIBERAL UTILITARIANISM; UTILITARIANISM; SOCIALISM; DEMOCRACY). (IP)

COMMUNITY CARE: government program to provide long-term care for the elderly, disabled and mentally ill within the resources offered by the community, rather than in hospitals or institutions. The policy was first introduced in the UK and Australia in the early 1990s and represented a far-reaching National Health Service reform aimed at replacing traditional institutional provision of long-term care by community outreach programs. It was claimed that the major aim was to offer the long-term patient a better quality of life; however, the scheme has suffered considerable criticism on the grounds that, as old institutions closed, the level of support for people in need had correspondingly dropped placing a greater burden on non-professional carers, typically the children or partners of the disabled or elderly. (IP)
COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT
COMMUNITY SERVICES : Health care and related support services which are based in the local community . (DM)
COMPASSION: The emotion associated with sharing the suffering of another together with the desire to give aid. (See BENEFICENCE, CARING, LOVE, VIRTUES) (DM)
COMPENSATION : Payment for injury. (DM)
COMPETENCE : Mental capacity to make responsible choices. Compare to incompetence, which is used to refer to someone unable to make choices. (See INFORMED CONSENT). (DM)
COMPETITION: (Latin: competere 'to come together or seek in common') 1. Act of competing in the market, sport, examination etc. 2. In biology a process that determines how available resources are distributed among entities that demand them. The supply of any resource at the scale of biological organisms (including humans), is generally finite. Organisms that are best able to gather a resource amongst the efforts of other organisms to do the same, obtain more of this resource, and are said to be most competitive with respect to that resource. Indirect harm may be caused by the most competitive entity to any less competitive entities who receive less of the resource, especially if the resource is essential to their physical operation. One example of competition concerns plants regenerating in a place cleared of vegetation, but left for plants to regrow. Some plant species are very good at growing quickly, and they gain primary access to sunlight above slower-growing species, reducing the likelihood of their survival if they are unable to cope with reduced light. In this example, only a certain amount of light arrives at the surface of the earth, and this is the finite resource. The plants that are superior at acquiring light (by growing taller), do so at the expense of plants who are less competitive (slower growing). A related, and ethically relevant example is competition for space and other resources between humans and species of plants and animals. Humans are able to acquire vast areas of space (by habitat modification) at the expense of the organisms that occupied this space previously (unable to exist in the modified environment). Interestingly, some organisms might be better able to occupy the modified habitat, and they profit (e.g. establish larger populations) compared to their ability in the unmodified habitat. What, if anything, determines how much a particular organism should harm a competitor by reducing the amount they receive of an essential resource? Large bodies of empirical and theoretical research into aspects of competition exist in the ecological and economic literature. (See TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS). (IP+HM)

COMPLACENCY : See APATHY.

COMPLEMENTARY DNA (cDNA): DNA that is synthesized from a messenger RNA template; the single-strand form is often used as a probe in physical mapping. (DM)
COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINE: is a vast, heterogeneous set of therapies which generally have a common philosophy which is a belief in a holistic approach to health. Therapies focus, to varying degrees, on the integration of mind, body and spirit to restore health. Complementary medicine is also known as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), natural therapies, alternative medicine, unconventional medicine and integrative medicine. Terms including "alternative" are now considered to be inappropriate as they imply a polarized position to that of allopathic or conventional medicine and is sometimes used in a pejorative sense to imply some form of quackery. A general definition is that complementary therapies are those therapies that are not taught as a normal part of medical education or provided within conventional health care facilities. However this becoming an increasingly impractical definition due to increased integration of complementary and conventional health care. In addition there is a culture context where therapies considered complementary in one culture may be mainstream in another e.g. acupuncture in China (JW).

COMPLEX: 1. Unpredictable, intricate, complicated or composed of many parts. (See COMPLEXITY) 2. Psychology: A group of related feelings, emotions or ideas which are activated, expressed, repressed and selected for together. (See MEME COMPLEX) (MP)
COMPLEXITY: Lack of predictability in a system due to nonlinear collective behavior. General order of complexity in the sciences, from the simplest or most predictable system mathematics, whose statements are logical consequences or tautologies, then increases through physics, chemistry, microbiology and biology, to greatest complexity in ecology and human sociology. A crude measure of complexity is the amount of information or symbols required for description. The emerging science of complexity theory tries to elucidate the universal features of complexity among systems. It uses synthesis as an opposing complement to reductionism, at the level of the behavior of subsystems and whole systems. (See COMPLEX, COMPLEXITY THEORY, SYSTEMS THEORY, EMERGENT PROPERTIES, SIMPLICITY, SIMPLEXITY, COMPLICITY, COMPLICATEDNESS, CHAOS) (MP)
COMPLEXITY THEORY: ‘Complexity theory’ is the investiga ‘nested’ hierarchies of subsystems, leading to coordinated behavior and ‘emergent properties’ in meta-systems. C, chaos and order. Some of these trains of thought have a philosophical lineage in ‘rational morphology’ and the search for ‘laws of form’ (e.g. Kant,rt Kauffman,ARCHY, NETWORK, PROCESS) (MP)
COMPLICATEDNESS:  Difficulty of analysis and understanding due to the presence of many interconnected elements. (See COMPLEXITY) (MP)
COMPLICITY: 1. Complicity is being in partnership; having an accomplice and sharing responsibility. 2. Complexity theorists Jack Cohen and Ian Stewart use complicity to mean the ‘emergence’ of large-scale simplicity from the convergence of different subsystems of rules, which ‘enlarges the space of the possible’. Examples include evolution, consciousness, economics. Complicity is also referred to as ‘super emergence’ (‘regular emergence’ is expressed in ‘simplexity’). (See SIMPLICITY, SIMPLEXITY, COMPLEXITY, EMERGENT PROPERTIES) (MP)

COMPONENTS: Units, parts, parameter, factors of a system, independent and interdependent units. Biotic components: genes, cells, organs, organisms, populations, communities. Abiotic components: Matter and energy (JA)

COMPROMISE: 1. Compromise is the process or result of concessions from both sides of a dispute with the aim of finding common middle ground. Settlement of differences is achieved from mutual adjustment of conflicting claims/principles by yielding a part of each. Compromise is possible for disputes but may be more difficult for institutionalized conflict. Cultural values or human needs such as identity and security may not be subject to compromise. 2. A concession made at the expense of one’s integrity or original values; exposure to danger or suspicion, especially of repu to subject it to risk of passage to an unauthorized person. ‘Compromise’ is from the original Latin: compromissum ‘mutual promise to abide by a decision’, now obsolete but appropriate to biohe previous positions. (See CONSENSUS, CONCILIATION, COLLABORATION, CONDITIONALITY, NEGOTIATION, FACILITATION, ARBITRATION, DISPUTE, CONFLICT) (IP & MP)

COMPREHENSION : Understanding by a patient or research subject of information disclosed orally or in writing. (DM)
COMPUTER : Any automated device or machine that can perform calculations on information or data. The data must be received in an appropriate form that is then processed according to specific instructions. The most widely used is the digital computer - an automatically controlled calculator machine in which data is represented by combinations of discrete electrical pulses. The information is analyzed according to a set of instructions or programs. At the same time as the computer's electronic circuits have decreased in size they have become smaller, faster and much more powerful. Fields such as science, technology, industry, commerce, education and communication could not cope in the modern world without the use of modern computers. (See COMPUTER MODELING). (IP)
COMPUTER MODELING : The development of a description or mathematical representation; i.e. a model, of a process or living system using a computer. This model can then be used to study the mechanism or behavior of the system under varying artificially controlled conditions, and analyzing likely outcomes. For example, the likely effect of a climatic change in areas where certain types of fauna and flora flourish maybe be amenable to modeling. To explore variables to an extent that is not possible by any other experimental means makes computer modeling a powerful tool in predicting possible ecological reactions under modern environmental stresses. (See COMPUTER). (IP)
COMPUTER VIRUS : An unauthorized computer program or software fragment which has the ability to propagate itself within a networked computer system or across the internet. It parasitizes other software, often damaging, deleting or otherwise interfering with data and/or the normal operations of programs. A 'virus' propagates itself by latching onto another program or data file. A 'worm' is able to self-propagate copies or segments of its programming autonomously. A 'Trojan horse' masquerades as a useful program whilst covertly accessing or altering restricted information. Computer viruses may be programmed by hackers, targeted at specific organizations by hacktivists, indiscriminately released by hacks, or strategically employed to jam data and communications during cyber-warfare. Viruses may arrive as executable e-mail attachments, and are often targeted at Microsoft products because of the widespread use of this software. Reproduction can be rapid and global, for example using e-mail address lists for propagation. This necessitates constant engineering of antivirus software, an interesting example of which is the 'viral predator' sent down the same electronic pathways in an attempt to hunt down and neutralize the virus and its progeny. (See WORM, BUG, VIRUS, ARTIFICIAL LIFE, HACKERS, HACKTIVISM) (MP)
COMPUTER WORM : See WORM.
CONCENTRATION CAMP : Internment centers for political prisoners. The British were the first to have instituted a system of concentration camps in Cap Colony and the Transvaal during the Boar War of 1901-1902. However, the most notorious concentration camp system was that used in Nazi Germany during the Second World War. Among the most infamous were Belsen, Buchenwald, Dachau, Auschwitz, Oranienburg, Papenburg, Maidenec and Treblinka. On account of their ethnicity, millions of innocent people were starved, tortured and killed in these camps as a deliberate act of mass extermination. (See INSTITUTION OF WAR, NAZI(S)). (IP)
CONCEPTION: The fertilization of the egg by a sperm that initiates the formation of a zygote (has been used for implantation also). (See FERTILIZATION) (DM)
CONCEPTUS: This term refers to the products of fertilization. It includes the embryo proper as well as extraembryonic structures and tissues that develop from the zygote (e.g. placenta). It is also called the preembryo . (DM)

CONCILIATION: Dispute resolution in normal relationships by the offer of friendly gestures and overtures. (See CONFLICT RESOLUTION) (MP)

CONCUBINE: archaic term for a class of woman who co-habits in the same house without being married to her partner. The famous orator of Greece Demosthenes (384-322 BC) placed things of Eros in perspective by defining " We have hetairas (prostitutes) for sensual pleasure, concubines for our daily bodily needs, and legal spouses to give birth to pure children and to be faithful guardians of the home ." In the majority of nations the legal rights of the de-facto partner or modern concubine approaches that of marriage (see marriage). (See MARRIAGE, OPEN MARRIAGE, ADULTERY) (IP)

CONDITIONALITY: 1. Depending upon certain conditions for a particular outcome. 2. A term pertinent to discussions of international development, often referring to the conditionality imposed upon ‘structural adjustment’ loans issued by instor elementary school education in developing countries. (MP)   

CONDOM: is a barrier method of contraception and protection from sexually-transmitted diseases (STDs) including AIDS. The term is derived from the Latin condus meaning receptacle and was originally designed as a prophylactic against STDs associated with prostitution. When properly used it ranks relatively high in effectiveness; however, its failure rate of between 10 and 15 percent, among the young especially, is often high (see FEMALE CONDOM). (IP)

CONFIDENCE LIMITS : Numbers that indicate the statistical certainty of a particular value. For example, if the 95% confidence limits for the mean mass (3.2 g) of a particular species of snail in a named wood are ±0.13 g it means that there is a 5% chance that the mean mass of that species of snail in that wood lies outside the range  3.07 to 3.33 g. (MR)

CONFIDENTIALITY: One of the important components of bioethical principles and a fundamental component in the physician-patient relationship, stemming primarily form the Hippocratic oath. All information of a person, whether personal, private or genetic is confidential and not to be revealed to others without the individual's consent. In the case of AIDS patients their visit to the testing place and results of testing should be held in confidence (DM, JA).

CONFLICT: A situation in which opposing viewpoints have come into physical confrontation. Conflicts are more intractable than simple disputes because of the existence of institutionalized, fundamental disagreement with limited malleability of participants or the situation. (See DISPUTE, CONFLICT RESOLUTION) (MP)

CONFLICT OF INTEREST : Can arrive any time personal, family, national or financial interests distort the pure pursuit of truth, goodness, love or health. This can apply to anyone, for example a cab driver who takes you for a longer ride than necessary, or a member of the family of a terminally-ill mentally incompetent patient, who makes a "proxy" or "surrogate" decision to stop treatment, ostensibly for the patient's good but really to benefit from an inheritance, or because of the high cost of medical treatment (in those countries which do not yet have universal, government-supported, free health care), or because of the simple burden of care.
Bioethical attention, however, is usually given to conflicts of interest of scientists, scholars and health professionals. Cases are clear when a physician prescribes drugs manufactured by a company from which the physician benefits financially, or when a scientist publishes an article with positive conclusions about a drug or other product of a corporation for which the scientist works. Things are more complicated when a nurse hesitates to complain about medical negligence for fear of jeopardizing employment or advancement, or when a physician eats a free lunch supplied by a drug company for all who attend a staff lecture or grand rounds.
It is hard to be totally pure and free of conflict of interest. You may refuse to fly to a conference if the tickets are supplied by a corporation which you would like to be free to criticize, only to discover later that the disinterested scientific association which invited you received donations from that same corporation. And if you pay for the tickets from research funds which you receive from your own university, you might want to look into the corporations whose donations are allowing your university (and you and your family!) to survive. Nor does it help to say that everything is alright if you have academic freedom to say what you want. During the United States war in Vietnam, universities which existed on weapons research contracts were happy to employ radical anti-war professors, whose noisy presence gave the university a liberal image. Even if one could get free of financial interests, personal and emotional interests would remain. There is a school of literary criticism called "deconstructionism" which seeks the hidden motives of authors of literary creations. Ideas from this school have had some influence on philosophical and scientific criticism. Medical journals are beginning to require that authors list possible conflicts of interest. (FL)

CONFLICT RESOLUTION: Conflict resolution is an important feature of both personal and international relations. Conflict analysis, negotiation, mediation, conciliation, facilitation, arbitration and judicial settlement are aspects of collaboration towards a compromise or consensus decision. Negotiation can be aided by good working relationships, persuasive value systems and ‘soft power’. Mediationtion provt, whereasTION, COMPROMISE, CONSENSUS, CONCILIATION, PREVENTIVE DIPLOMACY, PEACE BUILDING, PEACE MAKING, PEACE KEEPING) (MP)

CONFUCIUS: Confucius (c.551-479 bce) Philosopher of ancient China. The teachings of Confucius were recorded by his students, especially in the book known as Lun Yu (or in English: Analects). Confucius stressed the importance of acquiring virtue and acting according to proper moral behavior. His teaching places special emphasis on the importance of family, and on filial obligations towards parents. The father-son relationships is one of the Five Relationships (see Five Relationships). Confucius' teachings were influential not only in China, but also in Japan, Korea, Vietnam and other parts of East Asia. (AG)
CONFUCIAN CANON: Chinese texts of Confucianism containing the philosophy of Confucius, or K'ung Fu-tzu (551-479 BCE ), originally comprising the Five Classics ("Shih Ching", "Li Ching", "Shu Ching", "Chun Chiu" and "I Ching"), later reorganised by Chu Hsi (1130-1200 CE ) into four Books ("Analects of Confucius", "Book of Mencius", "Great Learning" and "Doctrine of the Mean"). (See CONFUCIUS) (MP)
CONGENITAL DISORDER : A defect present at birth, regardless of cause, which may or may not be inherited. (JA, DM)
CONGENITAL MALFORMATION structural or anatomical aberrations or less obvious physiological, functional, immunological or behavioral defects in neonatal or postnatal offspring (see teratogen). (DM+DR)

CONIFEROUS FOREST: The coniferous, or ‘boreal’ foresrous forest, or ‘taiga’, con forests provide important habitat for hawk, owl, mink, elk, moose, bears and wolf. (See TAIGA, GYMNOSPERM, SOFTWOOD) (MP)
CONJECTURE: Conjecture simply means taking a guess. For example, a hypothesis is a refined and structured kind of conjecture. An educated guess is made by an expert with some backing in related knowledge. Heuristics is the use of educated guesses in the search for a solution. (See HYPOTHESIS, HEURISTICS,  ASSUMPTION) (MP)

CONJOINT TWINS: Two fetuses developed from the same ovum that are physically united at birth. Conjoint twins are the result of identical twins where the split is incomplete and the two new embryonic axes fail to separate in their entirety. The degree of union may be slight or extensive, and the twins may be joined at any part of their bodies. Most conjoined twins do not survive after birth and frequently suffer from major heart malformations. Ever since medical science made the separation of conjoined twins a possibility, there have been concerns about the ethics involved; sometimes one of the twins is sacrificed for the sake of the other. The famous 'Siamese' twins, Eng and Chang Bunker, were born in 1811, lived for 63 years and had 22 children between them. Their wives lived in separate houses and the twins spent alternate weeks with each of them. (See TWINS/TWINNING). (IP)
CONJUGATION: The reproductive process by which DNA is transferred between bacteria during cell-to-cell contact. (DM)
CONSANGUINITY: Descent from common ancestors. (DM)
CONSCIENCE: The ethical sense of right and wrong which is generally valued as the hallmark of a true existence as it represents the ability to choose and decide to take action and assess reaction. What one believes is right or wrong. It is sometimes thought of as an "inner voice". The conscience is a very unreliable guide to ethics. Psychopathic killers have sometimes thought that their consciences were telling them to kill. (IP, FL)
CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTOR : A term that came into prominence during the First World War and applies to those who object to military service in a fighting capacity on moral, religious or ethical grounds. The British Military Service Act of 1916 dealt with conscientious objectors characteristically harshly. In 1939 provisions were made in the Military Training Act for exemption of bona fides to be allocated to various other appropriate form of national service. (See VIETNAM WAR, INSTITUTION OF WAR). (IP)
CONSCIOUSNESS: The registration of an effect, for example, a scale is conscious of weight. The ability to be aware of one's actions or experiences. Most biologists would hold that at least many mammals species, including the non-human primates, exhibit consciousness. Moral agents have especial duties towards conscious entities since such entities are aware of their pleasures and PAINS (q.v.). It is difficult to suppose that there will never be conscious ROBOTS (q.v.). (MR)
CONSEQUENT : In logic the second part of a conditional statement; that is, a statement (or proposition) that is said to follow from, or be implied by, another statement. For example, if the breeding conditions improve then the endangered species will flourish - will flourish is the consequent. (See CONSEQUENTIALISM). (IP)
CONSEQUENTIALISM: The normative theory that the rightness or wrongness of actions is determined by anticipated or known consequences, compare to deontologism. (DM)

CONSENSUS: A consensual agreement or win-win outcome of collaborative problem-solving and conflict resolution. A consensus implies that debate has taken place, the solution is generally accepted rather than a grudging compromise, and that agreement is deep-rooted enough that it can stand for some time without need to revisit the issue. (See COMPROMISE, COLLABORATION, CONFLICT RESOLUTION, DELPHI METHOD) (MP)

CONSENSUS CONFERENCE : A conference of persons, usually of lay persons, which seeks to reach consensus on a moral dilemma, which is useful as a model for society. (DM)
CONSENT: See INFORMED CONSENT.
CONSENT FORMS : Papers given to persons to explain a procedure, and request their signature as a record of agreement. (See INFORMED CONSENT, CLINICAL TRIALS). (DM)
CONSERVATION: includes both preservation and protection, preservation for long term use by the future generation and protection of what we have on the biosphere (earth). Opposite of hoarding. Needs sound management practices. Two types - In situ and Ex situ depending on the region of conservation. see In situ and Ex situ. In situ Conservation: - conservation of naturally found ecosystems includes the care and maintenance of living populations of species in their natural habitats - domesticated and cultivated species.   Ex situ Conservation: - When an exotic species is removed from its original habitat and in an artificial habitat such as the zoo/zoological parks and botanical gardens/seed banks. Currently there are about 500.000 species of living creatures in zoos and 35,000 species of plants in 1,500 botanical gardens which is 15 per cent of world's plant resources. Some estimates indicate the number of plant species in botanical gardens as high as 70,000 to 80,000 species. Example - Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, UK (JA)
CONSERVATION DEPENDENT SPECIES: A species which is the focus of a continuing program of taxon or habitat conservation, such that it would qualify for threatened species status if the conservation efforts were to cease. (See CONSERVATION, THREATENED SPECIES, ENDANGERED SPECIES) (MP)
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: See CONVENTION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY.
CONSERVATION OF CULTURE: See CULTURAL HERITAGE, CULTURAL EVOLUTION.
CONSERVATION OF HERITAGE: See HERITAGE.

CONSERVATION MOVEMENT : Widespread belief, accompanied by action, that wildlife and wilderness areas should be preserved. Many traditional cultures have an implicit conservation movement, though traditional cultures have also often caused environmental degradation and have resulted in species going extinct. In the West the modern conservation movement dates only from the late nineteenth and early twentieth century when increasing numbers of people became concerned at the threat to rare species, scarce habitats and unspoilt areas of natural beauty. An increasing number of non-government organisations have arisen dedicated to conserving certain aspects of the natural world.  (See GREEN MOVEMENT). (MR)

CONSILIENCE : The joining together of knowledge and information across disciplines to create a unified framework of understanding. The concept was developed by Harvard biologist E.O. Wilson in a book named Consilience: the unity of knowledge (1997). (See E.O. WILSON, HOLISTIC THINKING) (RW)
CONSPICUOUS CONSUMPTION: The consumption of goods based on the desire for social status, such that the satisfaction is based upon the desire to impress rather than on any other usefulness or utility of the item to the consumer. (See CONSUMPTION, CHINDOGU) (MP)

CONSTANT CAPITAL: The ‘constant capital’ rule implies the passing on to future generations of an aggregate capital (economic, human and natural capital) equivalent to that of today. ‘Strong sustainability’ requires the forms of capital to remain in constant proportion, whereas ‘weak sustainability’ allows substitution between them. ‘Critical natural capital’ must remain constant, functioning as it does to provide our global life-support system. (See STRONG SUSTAINABILITY, WEAK SUSTAINABILITY, NATURAL CAPITAL, CRITICAL NATURAL CAPITAL) (MP)

CONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM: See SCIENTIFIC METHOD.
CONSUMER PARTICIPATION : See PUBLIC PARTICIPATION.
CONSUMPTION: Resource consumption is the utilization of natural capital, involving flows of energy and materials from the environment. Consumption creates the demand which is the economic driving force for production and supply. Personal consumption may be measured per capita in dollars, energy use, tonnes of CO2 emissions, paper consumption, water usage, or ecological footprint. Consumption is one of the major socioeconomic factors leading to environmental destruction. It is a central component of Ehrlich’s famous equation I=PCT (in which I = ecological impact, P = population, C = consumption, and T = thasis on materialistic economic measures of wellbeing. Reality however reminds us that global limitforms of consumption have environmental costs significantly disproportional to any real human benefcuous consumption are phased out or become socially unacceptable. (See ECONOMY, CONSPICUOUS CONSUMPTION, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, SUFFICIENCY) (MP)
CONTACT TRACING : A public health practice of identifying persons who have been exposed to a communicable disease through person-to-person contact; includes, for example, identification of the sexual partners of persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. (See AIDS, CONFIDENTIALITY , COMMUNICABLE DISEASES, PUBLIC HEALTH). (DM)
CONTAINMENT : The use of biological or physical means to minimize or prevent the dissemination of biologically active agents which may be hazardous. (See BIOSAFETY, RECOMBINANT DNA RESEARCH). (DM)

CONTENTS: 1. Important initial reference list of the structure, organization and themes within a work of (usually) non-fiction. (See INDEX) 2. Inside elements; ingredients determined by the reductionist approach of breaking something down into its constituent parts. (See CONTEXT) (MP)
CONTEXT: Outside elements; external environment and conditions, investigated using the Systems Theory approach of checking for interactions and influences to/from higher scales and surrounding systems. (See CONTENTS) (MP)

CONTIGS: Groups of clones representing overlapping, or contiguous, regions of a genome. (DM)

CONTINUUM: A plane of thought; a continuous axis or tangent. In mathematics the continuum is the set of all real numbers. Elements or opinions are arranged in clumps along many conceptual continuums. Opposites are at polar extremes of a continuum, but often cannot really exist without the other. The continuum reminds us that ideas have fuzzy boundaries, and that most things are not black-and-white but a matter of degree. (See SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM, FUZZY LOGIC, MIDDLE WAY) (MP)

CONTRACEPTION: the prevention of pregnancy, especially through the use of devices and medications, or through behavioral procedures such as withdrawal, abstinence, and sterilization. Contraception by biological means involves the prevention of one or more of a) formation or release of gametes in the male or the female b) fertilization c) implantation of the fertilized egg, or development of the early embryo [Latin contra + concipere to take in] (see Contraceptives). (IP)
CONTRACEPTIVES: devices or medications used to prevent conception. These include diaphragms, condoms, intrauterine devices (IUDs), cervical caps, spermicidal creams, various formulations of the pill, subdermal implants and injectables (see Contraception). (IP)
CONTRACT: Binding agreement between two or more parties. Most ethicists would hold that a person generally has a duty to fulfil a contract into which she has voluntarily entered unless certain unforeseen and particular circumstances arise so that significant harm would result from fulfilling the contract.
A social contract, is, roughly speaking, a presumed, implicit agreement between the members of a SOCIETY (q.v.) or between individuals and the state. Thus, for example, there may exist an unspoken agreement that the state should uphold the rule of law so that I and other good citizens may live in peace but that, at the same time, I have certain duties towards the state - for example, to sit on a jury or even fight on its behalf in a (just) WAR (q.v.). (MR)
CONTRACTARIANISM: Ethical and political theories involving a social contract. Negotiations are capable of yielding mutual principles of conduct, which are binding upon all parties to create a just society. Ethical philosophers who had an influence on contractarian thought include Hobbes" moral theory based on desire, and Kant’s "Metaphysics of Morals" (1797). The most famous contemporary contractarian is John Rawls, who in his "A Theo of individual equality. Other contractarians may define the goals or contracting parties in different ways, fthe most good for the greatest number. (MP & IP)
CONTROL GROUPS : Groups that serve as a check or standard of comparison in experimental studies . (DM)
CONVENTION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD) It was negotiated before the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The agreed text of the convention of biological diversity was adopted by 101 governments and signed by 159 governments and the European Union. It was adopted to stress the equity in the use of biodiversity on ethical principles. CBD has been ratified by a total of 177 countries, excluding the United States of America. The objectives of the Convention as stated, in part, are as follows: Article 1 "conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies". Article 2 " Biological Diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems". (IP, JA)

CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS: Euphemistic term for missiles, explosives, artillery, small arms and other weapons, which although distinct from nuclear or other ‘weapons of mass destruction’, have in total produced ovance, Russia, China and North Korea who have been among major world-wide distributors of conventional weapons. The boundaries of ‘conventional’ should not be pushed to include decidedly unconventional new proposals such as space weapons, low-impact nuclear weapons (e.g. gamma ray bomb) or ‘swarm intelligence’. (See SMALL ARMS, EXPLOSIVES, MISSILES, LAND MINES, NON LETHAL WEAPONS, DISARMAMENT) (MP)

CONVULSIVE THERAPY: See ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY
COOPERATION a mutually helpful interaction essential in all living communities which when not embraced in human communities typically results in conflict and destructive competition for resources. (See TEAMWORK, CONSENSUS, COMPROMISE, BRAINSTORMING). (IP)
COPYRIGHT: Copyright protection applies to eight categories of works: literary; musical; dramatic; pantomime and choreographic; pictorial, graphic and sculptural; motion pictures and audio-visual work; sound recording; and computer programs. Copyright protects the expression of an idea, not the idea itself. (DM)

CORAL: Coral is a colonial animal which is formed from the symbiotic relationship of single-celled dinoflagellate algae (zooxanthellae) with coral polyps (class Anthozoa, phylum Cnidaria). The polyps exchange phosphates and nitrates for carbohydrates in the process of skeleton building. (See CNIDARIA, CORAL REEF, CORAL BLEACHING) (MP)
CORAL BLEACHING: A devastating condition which has spread alarmingly in recent years and now affects large regions of Earth’s coral reef systems, coral bleaching occurs when the zooxanthellae evacuate the coral skeleton, leaving thting global warming as a possible cause. Coral bleaching is a process which destroys the very habitat upon which whole ecologies depend. (See CORAL) (MP)
CORAL REEF: A habitat which provides for one of the largest biodiversities of any other, coral reefs are perhaps the underwater equivalent of tropical rainforests. Also found mostly in tropical and subtropical zones, coral reefs tend to form in less than 100m depth and greater than 18 ^o C temperature. An atoll is a coral island, often a ring of reef with a lagoon. Coral reefs are dynamic systems with high biodiversity, productivity and complexity, even in a nutrient-poor environment. They are giant living platforms of interlaced corals and the complex ecological community that comes along with them. Coral reefs are fragile, and currently threatened by coral bleaching, sediment/fertilizer runoff, commercial fishing trawlers, over-fishing, oil exploration, pest species like the crown-of-thorns starfish, anchor damage, development and mass tourism. (See CORAL, CORAL BLEACHING, GREAT BARRIER REEF, SUPER-ORGANISM) (MP)

CORNUCOPIANS are individuals who believe human population control is not needed. Originated from cornu copiae or horn of plenty (after the goat Amalthea by which Zeus was suckled). (IP)
CORONAS meaning "crown" are colored rings which appear around the moon or sun when seen through thin clouds consisting of water droplets. They are produced by diffraction and are more common with the moon because the sun’s brightness may make it difficult to see the effect (see RAINBOWS, HALOES, MIRAGES & GREEN FLASH). (IP)
CORRELATION: Relationship between two variables. A correlation coefficient shows how closely two sets of data are related. If the relationship between the two sets of data is perfect and positive, then the correlation coefficient is 1.0. If, for example, an extra 1 cm of height always meant that a person was 600 g heavier, then the correlation coefficient between heights and masses among people would be 1.0. If the relationship between two sets of data is inverse, then the correlation coefficient is negative. A perfect, inverse relationship has a correlation coefficient of -1.0. When there is no relationship between two sets of data the correlation coefficient is close to 0 and does not differ significantly from it. Correlation does not imply CAUSATION (q.v.). (MR) (See CAUSATION)

CORROBORATE: A hypothesis is corroborated if it is subjected to an experimental test which cannot manage to falsify it. (See FALSIFICATION) (MP)
CORROBOREE It is said that the word is the English version of the Australian Aboriginal
term "carib-berie" or ceremony ritualized in song and dance. Traditionally, corroborrees re-enacted the Dreamtime or Creation stories and were also activated for sacred, law education or war-like purposes. Aboriginal cultures have an oral tradition where stories (often past from one generation to the next for thousands of years) are used to educate about traditional law, folk lore, spirituality and gender-specific matters (see Mens’s Business & Women’s Business). Nowadtheir perspective (see AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL). 2. In general usage for any large and noisy Australian celebration. (IP)

CORTISOL: A glucocorticoid steroid hormone produced naturally by the cortex of the adrenal gland and also synthesized for pharmacological use. Cortisol and its synthetic derivatives; such as cortisone (also called prednilosone), are most potent anti-inflammatory agents that can effectively treat asthma attacks and reduce joint inflammation. When injected directly into joints, bursae or tendon sheaths the drug, since it does not enter the general circulation, is less likely to cause multiple toxic effects compared to oral administration. Treatments for asthma, which are typically delivered in aerosols (puffers or inhalers) containing corticosteroids such as cortisone, are drugs that relax (bronchodilate) airways. Asthma is more common in Australia and New Zealand than anywhere else in the world. It is thought to be provoked by external allergens such as pollen, dust, certain foods, emotional crises and excessive cold or exercise. (See ADRENAL GLANDS; ASPIRIN). (IP)
COSMETIC SURGERY : (Greek kosmesis 'adornment'). The improvement of the outward appearance of parts of the body. A distinction can be made between cosmetic surgery and plastic surgery where the former, typically, refers to minor reconstruction of cutaneous or underlying tissues performed to improve or correct a structural defect. This is usually done under local anesthetic. Plastic (from the Greek plassein 'to mold') surgery, on the other hand, applies to the alteration, replacement or restoration of visible parts of the body in order to correct a major structural or cosmetic defect. In these operations the surgeon may, typically, resort to tissue grafting (most commonly skin grafts) or employ inert material that can be molded into the required shape (mammoplasty or breast implants, for example). Reconstructive plastic surgery is routinely performed to correct birth defects (cleft lip and palate, for example) and to repair structures destroyed by trauma. (See COSMETICS). (DM, IP)
COSMETICS : (Greek kosmein 'to adorn'). The preparations used to enhance the appearance of skin or for emphasizing the features of the face or the shape of the finger-tips and so on. Face powder made of powdered rice or semolina, or of chemical compounds has been widely used for giving the face a smooth, mat surface. Kohl is used for shading the eyelids in order to make the eyes appear bigger, henna for staining hair, fingers and toes. Rouge for coloring cheeks and rouge paste (lipstick) for reddening the lips and varnish for finger and toenails. Since antiquity, the human animal has re-designed the body to enhance beauty for aesthetic augmentation and for heightened sexual excitement. (See COSMETIC SURGERY). (IP)
COSMIC RADIATION : High-energy particles with extreme penetration power capable of passing through many meters of lead. Cosmic rays originate in outer space and are distinguished as primary which impinge on the Earth's atmosphere and secondary which are produced within the atmosphere, or the Earth itself, from collisions between the primary radiation and atmospheric atoms. (See RADIOACTIVITY, RADIATION). (IP)

COSMOGONY: Pre-scientific, mythological, folkloric and religious explanations of the nature and genesis of the universe. (See COSMOLOGY) (MP)
COSMOLOGY: The scientific and philosophical study of the cosmos; the observable universe and the universe as a whole. (See ASTRONOMY, ASTROPHYSICS, COSMOGONY) (MP)

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS: (See DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS)
COUNSELLING : Provision of help, support of every kind (e.g. Moral, mental, spiritual) to a person in need e.g. Disease stricken. (See also GENETIC COUNSELING). (JA)
COURTESAN: 1. (Italian: cortigiana 'woman of the court') a court mistress or woman who provided companionship and/or sexual services for a member of the wealthy aristocracy, usually on a long-term basis, in return for financial support and a place to live 2. generally a 'high-class' prostitute (see MISTRESS). (IP)
COVENANT: A solemn agreement between two or more parties. A binding, enduring relationship characterized by mutual fidelity and trust. (DM)

CPR: Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation.

CPU : See CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT.
CRACK OR CRACK COCAINE: The street names of a highly addictive form of cocaine which is smoked. It’s made by baking a mixture of crystalline cocaine with baking powder and wafrom the distinctive 'cracking" sound the hard substance makes when broken crack pipe (the home-made device in which crack is smoked) and crack wars (ack babies) commonly with brain damage and other developmental disorders (see COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE; COCAINE BABIES; ADDICTION). (IP)
CREATION: see CREATIONISM; ORIGIN OF LIFE.
CREATIONISM: The idea that God created the world, sometimes also identified with the idea that God created each species separately. Some people think that creationism conflicts with the idea that the world has always existed, but there is no contradiction in the idea that a God who has always existed has always been creating the world. Some people think that Darwinist evolutionary theory conflicts with creationism, but there is no contradiction in the idea that God created the world with laws of the sort described in Darwinist evolutionary theory. (See ORIGIN OF LIFE).
Fundamental Christian creationists have often objected to Darwin, just as the Catholic Church condemned Galileo for his acceptance of the Copernican heliocentric theory in astronomy. This was because Christians often insisted on a literal interpretation Of the Bible. But Jews, who since Talmudic times have been accustomed to metaphorical interpretations of Biblical texts, had no theological problems either with Galileo or Darwin. Darwin reported that an article in Hebrew claimed that the doctrine of The Origin of Species matches the Biblical account of creation. Rabbi Avraham Itzhak Kook, the great rabbi and philosopher of modern Israel, had a philosophy very congenial to Darwinism. (See ORIGIN OF LIFE) (FL)
CREATIVITY: Valid originality. (MR)

CREEL SURVEY: A creel is a basket or trap for holding fish, so a creel survey is a technique for estimating fishing effort by interviewing fishers and surveying their catch. (See SUSTAINABLE FISHING) (MP)

CREMATION: Burning of the human body and reducing it to ashes. This practice was in effect in Europe already in the Stone Age. In Mycenean Greece (10 century bce), it was an important part of Greek funeral ceremonies. Cremation was widely practiced in the Roman Empire, but was avoided by the Jewish and Christian communities, because the practice was seen as pagan. It was also avoided by Zoroastrians because it was seen as polluting the fire. (see Tower of Silence) In Asia, cremation is an important part of Hindu and Buddhist funerals, and has been practiced since ancient times. (AG)
CREUTZFELDT-JAKOB DISEASE (CJD) a fatal encephalopathy caused by a prion first documented by German neurologists Hans Creutzfeldt (1885-1964) and Alfons Jakob (1884-1931). The formation of dementia-inducing plaques in the brain of infected individuals causes a progressive decline in cognition and motor function and, ultimately, death within a year of commencement of symptoms. The prion is thought to be a human variant of mad cow disease. There are well documented cases of cross-infection in patients who have developed the disease iatrogenically following corneal transplantation or hormonal treatments, such as fertility drugs or growth hormone, processed from infected human pituitary-derived preparations. The true extent of spread in the human population is unknown because of the disease’s extended 15-40 year incubation period (see PRIONS & BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY). (IP)
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY: A term used since the Nuremberg Trials, international war crimes recognized as 'Crimes Against Humanity' (Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 1998) are known acts as part of widespread or systematic aggression towards any civilian population which include: a) murder, b) extermination, c) enslavement, d) deportation or forcible transfer, e) imprisonment, f) torture, g) rape or enforced prostitution, pregnancy or sterilization, h) group persecution on grounds of politics, race, nationality, ethnicity, culture, religion or gender, i) enforced disappearance, j) the crime of apartheid, and k) other similarly inhumane acts causing great suffering or serious mental or physical injury. (See WAR CRIMES, GENOCIDE, JUST WAR THEORY, NUREMBERG TRIALS, INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT) (MP)
CRIMINAL JUSTICE .Leads to the wider issue of social justice - the idea of equality at the starting line like equality of opportunity which has always been built into certain progressive, liberal views of the world that wishes to believe in the overwhelming importance of the environment in determinism. (IP)

CRITICAL MASS: 1. The minimum quantity of fissile material required for a nuclear chain reaction. (See CHAIN REACTION, NUCLEAR WEAPONS) 2. The minimum amount of people with shared understanding or needs to tip the balance and instigate change. (See THRESHOLD, FEEDBACK) 3. A large cyclist gathering and rally promoting bicycle safety, road access for bikes and pollution-free transport, the monthly ‘Critical Mass’ is a  self-organizing community campaign, a bit like ‘Reclaim the Streets’ for pedestrians. T(MP)  

CRITICAL NATURAL CAPITAL: Natural capital and environmental assets essential to the functioning of the life support services supplied by ecosystems. These non-substitutable components of the global environment must be conserved for human survival and wellbeing. Human uses and values are ultimately dependent upon the primary values of ecological systems. Biogeochemical cycles, keystone species and the ozone layer are examples of critical natural capital. (See NATURAL CAPITAL) (MP)
CRITICALLY ENDANGERED: A species or other taxon which is at extreme risk of becoming extinct in the wild in the immediate future. This may be indicated by any of the following measures: a) a previous or projected population reduction of at least 80% over whichever is longer of a period of 10 years or three generations, b) extent of occurrence less than 100 km ² or area of occupancy less than 10 km ² , along with population decline, fragmentation or extreme fluctuations, c) population less than 250 mature individuals with continuing decline, d) population less than 50 mature individuals, or e) probability of extinction in the wild estimated at 50% over the longer of 10 years or three generations. (See ENDANGERED SPECIES, VULNERABLE SPECIES, GHOST SPECIES, EXTINCTION) (MP)
CRITICALLY ILL : See CHRONICALLY ILL, EMERGENCY CARE, INTENSIVE CARE UNITS, TERMINALLY ILL .

CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: A cross-sectional study or survey examines the range across a broad subject at a certain time, compared to a longitudinal study which is across several time intervals. (See LONGITUDINAL STUDY) (MP)

CROSSING OVER: The breaking during meiosis of one maternal and one paternal chromosome, the exchanging of corresponding sections of DNA, and the rejoining of the chromosomes. (DM+GK)
CRYOBIOLOGY: (Greek: kryos 'cold') Refers to the technology of freezing and thawing of biological tissues, particularly of gametes (sperm and oocytes) and embryos. Although the deep freezing of sperm was developed early in the 1900s, the successful freezing and thawing of oocytes and embryos is a relatively new technology. The first successful freezing and thawing of mouse embryos was reported independently in 1972 by David Whittingham and Ian Wilmut and paved the way for the first human frozen embryo born in 1983 in The Netherlands, and the second in Australia in 1984. (Greek kryos cold) (see CRYOPRESERVATION). (IP)
CRYOGEN: (Greek: kryos 'cold' + genein 'to produce') A chemical such as dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) that induces freezing which is commonly used to destroy diseased tissue without injuring the adjacent structures as used in cryosurgery (Greek kryos hidden + genein to produce) (see CRYOBIOLOGY AND CRYOPRESERVATION). (IP)
CRYOGENICS: The science of producing very low temperatures, as well as the applications, phenomena and technology pertaining to those temperatures. Applications include cryobiology, cryosurgery and the cryopreservation of biological samples. Some hopeful terminal patients have also been placed in cryonic suspension, involving deep freezing of their bodies or brains for future resuscitation in an era of more advanced medicine. (See CRYOBIOLOGY, CRYOPRESERVATION, CRYOGEN) (MP)
CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING : A section of engineering to study operations of engineering devices at a very low temperatures- cryogenic engines in space flights. (JA)
CRYONICS: See CRYOGENICS.
CRYOPRESERVATION: A hi-tech methodology involving the use of liquid nitrogen to preserve living organisms/parts (sperms/eggs/embryo) with a possibility of revival to life at a later date. A method of preserving cells, tissues and organs in a viable state by freezing. The basis of the technique is to allow cooling to take place at a carefully controlled rate in the presence of cryoprotective agents; that is, antifreezes such as dimethylsulphoxide with the aim to subject, an embryo for example, to controlled desiccation thus preventing fatal damage by the formation of ice crystals. Once deep-frozen the gametes/embryos may be stored indefinitely in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of minus 196 degrees Celsius . Cryopreservation is particularly important in the context of the preservation of endangered species (see CRYOBIOLOGY). (IP+JA)
CRYOSPHERE : The Earth’s snow and ice masses (see BIOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE & EXOSPHERE). (IP)
CRYOTHERAPY : A condition of hypothermia created during major surgical operations so as to decrease the oxygen requirement of a patient. (JA)
CRYPTIC: (Greek: kryptos 'hidden') 1. something secret or concealed 2. in the medical sense pertaining to a disease of unknown cause such as in cryptogenic infection - caused by pathogenic microorganisms of unknown origin 3. in the biological sense the cryptic appearance of an animal, the chameleon for example, refers to the resemblance of it to some part of the environment which helps it to escape detection by predators (Greek kryptos hidden). (IP).
CRYPTOGRAPHY : Crypto = hidden, graphy = writings. With the use of coded language, secret messages can be sent and the codes are deciphered to read the actual message. (JA)
CRYSTAL METH : See Amphetamines.
CSIRO: Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation (Australia).
CUCKOLD : Derogatory term for a man whose wife or partner has committed adultery; an allusion to the surreptitious parasitic nature of the cuckoo, whose eggs are raised in the nest of another bird. (See ADULTERY, OPEN MARRIAGE) (MP)

CULTIVAR: An international term denoting certain cultivated plants that are clearly distinguishable from others by one or more characteristics and which when reproduced retain those characteristics. A cultured variety of plant. In the USA "variety" is considered to be synonymous with cultivar (derived from cultivated variety). Cultivars are also called ^straqin^.  In closely related species although a few genetically disctiinct features can be recognized, the differences are not strong enough to consider them as two different species. This word is commonly used in plant breeding and in the culture of microorganisms. (DM, JA).

CULTURAL EVOLUTION: Culture evolves and technology progresses, with cultural evolutionary mechanisms analogous but different to those of biological evolution. Investigators of evolutionary aspects of culture have included philosophers (e.g. Lew